Primitive Technology

by David Wescott

  The celt removal technique was being demonstrated at Illinois Lake Carlysle in 1988. The celt was knocked out, used as a wedge, then replaced in the handle. On the next chop, the handle was split, so a back-up celt was used. The head was removed, then reinserted, and the celt handle was split again on the next chop. Several weeks later, Dave Klostermeier and I were flintknapping and discussed why the handles had broken. We concluded that the stone heads had inadvertantly been installed upside-down, and since the handle did not fit tightly, the handle split. For years we had seen what were known as "tally marks" on many celt artifacts. From experimentation to conclusion came the idea that "tally marks" would show the correct way to re-insert the stone and stop handle breakage.

  In the Cahokia Mounds area, "tally marks" occur on the bits of celts that are symmetrical. "Tally marks" are simply scratches made near the celt bit and sometimes in the butt. They only occur on symmetrical axes, because if the shape was odd or flaws in the stone were noticeable, it was easy to replace the stone the same way every time the tool was used.

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  CELTS

  Celt # AIb10/EC/1 — A MODEL

  This drawing by Errett Callahan was reduced 78% from scale to fit this page. From APE #4, The Pamunkey Project: Phase I, 1976.

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  CELT Alb10/EC/1 - A Model By Errett Callahan – – – – – – – –

  CELT RAW MATERIAL - Catoctin Greenstone cobble, Madison, VA

  TOOLS USED - Heavy billet, quartzite abrader, hammerstone, granite boulder, duck oil.

  PROCESS - Flaking of river cobble, bifacially, with billet to Stage 3. Direct percussion.... 40 min.

  Pecking all over with hard hammerstone..... 1.45 hr.

  Grinding all over on granite boulder (15 min) and sandstone abrading stone with sand and water..... 45 min.

  Polishing on wet slab without sand.... 5 min.

  Rubbing with duck oil (rendered from duck fat).....1 min.

  TOTAL celt head preparation time..... 3.16 hrs.

  NOTES: The often-overlooked key to holding the working time down on pecked stone tools is selecting for a hard enough hammerstone for pecking. The harder the hammer, the less time required for completion. In addition, the more pecking done at the bit, the less time required for grinding. Edge-damage potential is high, however, so one must work quite carefully. It could be said that each 15 minutes pecking will save about an hour's grinding. Pecking with a pointed portion of the hammerstone and striking toward the basal end (with bit facing the worker), rather than perpendicular to the edge, will reduce the chance of fracture. Maximum feasibility, however, comes with soft hammer flaking of the bit. A well-formed bit so flaked will require little or no pecking within 1/2" of the bit. This considerably reduces the danger of edge damage and total time expenditure. (The above observations are based on experience gained by the replication of over 50 grooved and ungrooved axes and celts.

  HAFTING RAW MATERIAL - Sycamore from a tough, 3' long, beaver-chewed log found by the Pamunkey River. TOOLS USED - Hafted, 3 lb. grooved axe for sectioning and trimming grip; moose antler tip chisel and heavy billet used for hole.

  PROCESS - Stick was cut to length (41cm; 16 1/8") with grooved axe... 5 min.

  Handle was trimmed from 6.5 cm (2 1/2") diameter at base to 3.2 cm (1 1/16"), reduced weight from 2 lb. to 11b. 40oz. Grip was octagonal in cross-section for better grip.......... 15 min.

  A 3' hole (7.7cm) was chiseled out with antler chisel (resharpened 15-20 times to 70 degree bevel) + billet.......... 1 hr.

  Handle trimmed to 15 oz.... 15 min.

  TOTAL handle preparation time..... 1.35 hrs.

  TOTAL axe preparation time.... 4.51 hrs.

  NOTES: Handle was retrimmed into a square shape on day 10. This was needed for optimum grip with medium slip. The octagonal grip eventually became rounded off and polished from use. The square handle was less slippery.

  CHOPPERS

  AXES

  A. Arizona Rhyolite chopper and knife.

  B. Greenstone blanks at various stages.

  C. 20-minute hafted hammer.

  D. Various celts by Errett Callahan.

  E Scott Silsby's celts.

  F. Hadzets by Scott Silsby.

  G. Celt showing spacing detail.

  H. Hafted grooved axe with shim in place.

  I Choppers and hand axes by David Wescott.

  J. Celts by David Holladay. Also C, G & H.

  Photos by David Wescott and E. & F. by Scott Silsby

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  MANUFACTURE OF GROUND STONE AXES

  By Paul Hellweg

  It does not take a great deal of skill to manufacture a stone hammer or axe; however, it can require a fair amount of patience. Crude hammers can be produced in less than an hour, but a finely crafted axe can take more than forty hours of repetitive effort — one should not undertake such a task unless he or she is in the proper frame of mind (think of your efforts as relaxation, not work).

  1. SELECT ARTIFACT BLANK - (See Silsby)

  Select a blank which closely approximates the shape of the hammer or axe you intend to manufacture (thus saving working time). The blank should be course-grained for a hammer; more finely-grained for an axe. Also, the blank should be homogeneous (that is, of like texture throughout), and it should be free of cracks.

  2. SELECT HAMMERSTONE

  Stone hammers and axes are made by pecking them into desired shape through repeated blows of a hammer. A proper hammerstone will speed up the process, and care should be taken in its selection. A siliceous mineral such as quartzite makes an ideal hammerstone; however, any very hard stone will suffice. A good hammerstone is fine-grained, comparatively heavy, and free of cracks.

  3. PECK ARTIFACT INTO DESIRED SHAPE

  If you are making a stone hammer and if you have found a blank of ideal proportions, all you will need to do is peck out a hafting groove. But if you are making an axe, you will also need to peck the blade into approximate shape (thereby speeding up the grinding process — see next step).

  Peck your blank into shape with short rapid blows of the hammerstone. Try to develop an effective but relaxed rhythm, and the work will proceed steadily. While pecking, support the blank on a wood anvil -this can be a tree stump, log, simply a piece of thick board *. Progress will be made quite rapidly on a course-grained hammer blank, but results will be slower to appear when working with a fine-grained axe blank.

  4. GRIND AXE BLADE

  If you are making a stone hammer, you will probably not have to do any grinding. But if you are making an axe, the blade will have to be ground into a smooth and sharp cutting surface. A sandstone slab is ideal as a grinding medium; however, a concrete patio stone will suffice—if that is all you have available. If you are using a concrete slab, you can speed up the grinding process by periodically sprinkling it with small quantities of sand.

  Grinding is no more complicated than pecking. Simply abrade the artifact blank back and forth, while periodically rinsing the slab clean of accumulated waste material with water. You should exercise increasing care as the blade nears its final shape so as not to nick its cutting edge.

  5. SHARPEN THE AXE BLADE

  You will not be able to grind an axe blade truly sharp on a rough grinding slab. Thus the final step in manufacturing an axe is to sharpen the blade with a small sandstone pebble (or wetstone—if you're not a purist). Keep the pebble wet and abrade it in a circular fashion along the axe's cutting edge—do this by holding the pebble at about a 20 degree angle to the axe blade (much in the same manner that a steel knife blade is sharpened). Assuming that you started with a sufficiently fine-grained blank, you should be able to grind an impressively sharp edge onto your stone axe.

  CONCLUSION

  Admittedly, this discussion of manufacturing techniques has been brief. However, all the basics have been covered, and you should be able to fabricate your own stone hammer or axe with this information. Most likely the hardest part of the who
le process will be finding suitable materials: artifact blank, hammerstone, grinding slab, and so forth. Once you have these in hand, the actual work should proceed without too much difficulty.

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  GREENSTONE WOODWORKING TOOLS

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  Text and Photos By Scott Silsby

  "Greenstone" (Catoctin Metabasalt) with minor Flint Run Jasper from near Front Royal, VA.

  The name "greenstone" is a wonderfully archaic field name used by geologists the world over to describe a wide variety of volcanic basalt related rocks containing minerals that usually impart a greenish color to them. Throughout the Eastern Appalachian mountain range a formation known as the Catoctin provided (and still provides) the rock formally known as Catoctin metabasalt as the premier axe grade stone.

  Fresh basalt or those only a few tens of millions of years old have but little strength advantage over easily worked flint family stone. Certain highly metamorphosed greenstones in many regions throughout the world have been literally forged into an extremely tough and tenacious rock by natural actions.

  In the northern regions of Shenandoah National Park from Front Royal, VA south to Luray, VA the Catoctin Metabasalt averages 1800 feet thick. Its estimated age is 600 to 800 million years old.

  In a geological report about this rock it is stated "generally present are chlorite, epidote, amphibole (actinolite) albite and pyroxene. Magnetite in sufficient quantity to deflect a compass needle, is present at some localities" (Allen'67). In another report (Reed '55) it is stated "only the pyroxene and part of the magnetite are believed to be primary minerals of the original lava" and further describes alterations of various other minerals that "attest to the highly altered mineral character of the Catoctin."

  Unfortunately, this metamorphism along with severe tectonic buckling destroyed the vast majority of this rock from an axe makers point of view. Only the greenstone originating from or occurring at or near the highest elevations along the northern crest of the Blue Ridge in warren and Page counties of Virginia appear to have escaped the destructive aspect of this vulcanism. Within this region are found the extensive celt shops described by W.H. Holmes in an early report (Holmes '97).

  The greenstone from this restricted area can be found in large flawless pieces in great quantity although collecting of it must be from outcrops and talus off of park land. Greenstone to the south of this area is ruined by epidotization while rock from further north is highly layered and folded (Gathright '76).

  What makes greenstone tick?

  Each component of the rock serves a vital role in making it the classic it is. Amphibole in the form of micro fibrous actinolite acts like glass or graphite fibers that impact flexible strength. (Nephritejade is a highly pure fibrous actinolite) Chlorite serves as a shock damper while epidote, albite and pyroxene lock them all together and provide hardness. Magnetite copper (native form), hematite, jasper and piemontite provide density, weight and also visually enrich the various varieties of rock. The mixture of these minerals and rock into the internal form that makes up true greenstone, allows it to be knapped as one would knap a strong flint. The softer minerals allow pecking (referred to a bushing in the stone trade) with little risk of fracture and further allows it to be highly polished where, if shaped correctly, it can withstand a great deal more shock than any other knappable stone. Jade is stronger but can't be flaked with control.

  Tips for Working Greenstone

  Think safety from when you start to whenever you use your finished item. Wear eye protection and avoid knapping, pecking, and grinding dust.

  Primary spalling and flaking can be done with slightly softer greenstone hammers. Large dense moose antlers work great as well as native copper ones. Very tough flint type hammers work well as pecking stones but soon shatter if used as flaking hammers.

  When flaking greenstone with antler avoid grinding platforms as it strengthens them too much. Use the billet to scrape into the platform thus stacking up the back of the platform with a number of micro hinged flakes. Ground greenstone is amazingly strong and ground platforms can split a moose billet.

  Don't over thin your preform. You can always peck and grind away any excess later. Once you have roughed out your preform and flaked away most of its cortex or weathered surface, soak it in hot water a couple of minutes then towel it dry in good light. Cracks and unhealed fractures will retain moisture and allow you to see if they are in critical area. Unless very severe or at the bit edge most will have little effect on the tools finished strength. Pecking destroys your ability to use this "flaw proofing" technique so do it during flaking. Healed veins and recrystallized cracks can be Two ignored. They are often stronger than the rock.

  Pecking is very tedious. Use a lot of leather as cushioning and match your pecking stone weight to the tools weight. As your greenstone tool takes shape and loses weight switch to a lighter stone. Avoid pecking near the bit edge. Rely on just grinding to shape it there. Avoid "karate chop" type blows which tend to bend the rock where its weakest attribute is tested. Support your tool well while you deliver small decisive sharp blows. Start in one spot and peck out a depression. Then keep pecking into the depression from one edge and work it all the way across the tool's surface.

  Three Blanks on left show progressive stages of pecking. Top right lacks secondary flaking, while the rest are ready for pecking.

  Top : beveled edge celt flaked to shape Bottom two show extensive pecking.

  Hafting

  Axes and "hadzets" are socketed into a mortise such that the top and bottom sides of the celt wedge into the hole making contact only on the up and down faces of the handles long axis. The more rectangular the celt is in cross section, the more surface area to absorb shock and transfer it into cutting force. Your bit should be slightly tapered from bit to pol so that the more it is forced into the mortise the tighter it will be. Avoid any taper on the tools side that would act as a wedge by making the tools bit a rather flat arc. Don't make it completely flat but keep the arc low.

  Overly tapered celts tend to pop out of the haft from misstrikes or rebounds. Very square, parallel sides can be driven through. Refer to the photo's for suggested angles. If the side edges are too smooth you may have problems getting the celt to "hang in there". Peck overly smooth edges rough to get the bite you need.

  Examples of head shape and lateral view showing suggested bevel.

  Grinding and Polishing

  Because hafting involves the constant insertation and removal of the celt from the mortise while you're banging away with abandon, the celt receives a lot of abuse and neglect at this stage. I usually peck and rough grind the celt to near finished form then fit it to the haft. Then lastly I do the final grinding and polishing.

  Grinding can be done on any gritty rock that contains quartz or harder minerals. Not so hard, rotted rock can have a slurry of hard grit smeared on it as you wet grind. Grinding rocks that are too hard slick up while rotted ones constantly wear away exposing fresh sharp material. Some creeks and streams carry very hard mineral sands such as garnet, corundum and topaz. You'll need a hand lens and a book to find them. Finer grits are used in the last stage of grinding with particular attention paid to the bit area running back to where the celt makes contact with the wood. Stone can withstand tremendous compressive forces but is weak in tension. The smoother the surface is the stronger it is but I don't mean waxing it! Ignore any advice you hear about shining 'em up with wax, tallow or oil You want a true polish and that's obtained only by using elbow grease and sweat.

  Within the secretive fraternity of faceters is held knowledge of more ways to shine up a stone than our abo ancestors knew ways to knap flint.

  Suggested angle and arcs for greenstone axe bits. Make adjustments to suit your needs.

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  Arcs and Angles

  Greenstone tools work best on unseasoned green hardwoods. The wood is kept damp between work sessions in bark or wood containers then slowly dried to prevent cracking. Peat mos
s or bleach controls fungus. Overly blunt tool cutting edges bludgeon the wood while too sharp ones penetrate too deeply, get hung up and get damaged. Intersecting flat surfaces have very little strength. Two intersecting arcs have great strength. Your challenge is to find that harmony between strength and efficiency.

  A technique I have used in my greenstone toolmaking workshops is quick and requires little geometry. Don't use these angles and arcs on anything other than Catoctin metabasalt and jade. Diabase, diorite, hornfels, gabbro and such usually need an extra five degrees of angle but with these recommended arcs laid on. Using a draftsman compass or a protractor draw a full tool scale 40 degree angle on a sheet of paper. Then draw a 45 degree angle on another. Use a 2 lb. 7oz. coffee can of 61 / 8" diameter to trace an arc from the cutting bit of the drawing back to your tools planned thickness. Do this on both sides. On your 40 degree drawing try using a dinner plate. Mine are 10 3/16" diameter. The larger the diameter of the plate the sharper the cutting angle of your template drawing. The 45 degree thick bit type I have found useful for heavy cutting on seasoned and very hard woods. The 40 degree sharp bit is best on unseasoned or very soft wood. Mix and match these angles and arcs to suit the hardness of the wood. One particular "trick," practiced world wide for centuries, is to withhold water during the final few seconds of wet lap polishing. Many minerals respond by developing a brilliant glaze that has proven to be a very hard surface as well. The phenomenon is called Beilby's Flow and a few specialists in the field have proposed that under very high frictional forces molecules are ripped off of high points, changed, then bonded back to the surface at low points. All other polishing is the simple method of producing progressively smaller and finer scratches. Old, flint dust impregnated knapping pads of leather work great, dirty leather will do. Crush hard minerals to a fine powder, winnow out the grit and smear the finest powder on a damp leather pad. Rub like crazy for an hour longer than you think you possibly can stand and you will have a decent polish. Try crushing various rocks and minerals in you abo mortar and pestle until you find one that works. Refer to the Moh's scale of hardness in rock books as hard minerals work best.