Primitive Technology

by David Wescott

  Figure 1: Loop Formation

  Preparation of the cordage is the most time consuming part of tumpline production. The cordage needs to be strong and a uniform diameter throughout its length. It needs to be tightly spun, with few tag ends from splicing.

  California's ethnographic tumplines typically have five or six warp cords, twice the length of the finished product and approximately 3 1/2 mm in diameter. Approximately 10 yards of slightly smaller diameter cordage is needed for the weft.

  For weaving, a needle, awl, or shed stick is used. Weaving does not depend on a loom, just like most of California's pre-contact textiles. Basically, one end of the work is tied to a tree, and the working area is tied to a belt or cord at the weaver's waist, an arrangement called a belt loom.

  Work begins at the loop. The mid-points of the warp cords are aligned side by side. Six or seven inches of strap are woven by passing the weft cord between the plys of the warp cords. The loop weaving is centered on the center of the warp cords. The loop is then formed by folding this section over on itself.

  The belt loom is now re-tied with the loop near the tree. The warp cords are then alternated, side-by-side, and needle weaving between the cordage plys is resumed. The work proceeds on twice the number of warps as on the beginning loop, making the main band twice as wide as the loop.

  It is impractical to weave with more then two yards of weft at a time. Splicing of wefts, as needed, is accomplished, not with a knot, but by overlapping the old and new weft ends for two or three rows of weaving.

  Near the end of the warps, for approximately the last foot of weaving, the warps are customarily divided into two parts, apparently for decorative purposes. At the very end, the warps are wrapped to secure them. The tumpline is complete. With use it becomes soft and glossy.

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  ESTIMATED TIME

  cordage making 40 hours

  weaving 4 hours

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  The photos on the next page show how the tumpline is used, with the strap at either forehead or shoulders. The half twist between the head and load provides a hinge that keeps the strap from sliding off the head while walking. A twined hat was often worn in the Great Basin to further cushion the forehead, and as protection from the sun.

  The carrying net was fabricated using a similar technique for the straps. The net section would be made using a regular netting technique with shuttle and gage.

  Belts are universal. Not only do they support clothing, but they continue to be used today for hanging small tools and pouches at the waist. Among the Wakchumni Yokuts of California (Southern Sierra Nevada Foothills), belts were woven of the same technique as described above. These belts were worn by both sexes to support a breechclout.The belts were plain for every day, decorated with clam shell disk beads for special occasions. The belt was made with plain ends and no loop.

  The tumpline and clam disk bead belt shown in the photos are probably the first ones made in California in the last 50 years. The tumpline's utility has already proved out, carrying loads backpacking through three feet of snow. The simple appearance of these tools belies the great increase in carrying effectiveness they give the user.

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  REFERENCES

  D'Azevedo, W.L.

  1986 Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 11, Great Basin, Smithsonian Institute, Washington, D.C.

  Gayton, A.H.

  1948 Yokuts & Western Mono Ethnography, University of California Archaeological Records, Vol. 10, No. 1, October 1948, Pg. 83-85.

  Latta, Frank F.

  1977 Handbook of Yokuts Indians, Bear State Books, Santa Cruz, Ca.

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  Figuring The Final Dimensions of a Net

  When tying a net, all the meshes, or cells, are collapsed as in Figure 2. When in use a net is typically spread out square (except for carrying nets) as in Figure 1. Spreading the net reduces the length of each cell from 2x to x (1.4) (1.4 approximates the square root of 2). This reduces the net length by 70% (1.4 / 2 = .7). So pull the net out tight, measure, multiply by .7. Then for width, pull the net tight side to side and repeat the process.

  Norm Kidder

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  NETTING NOTES

  Text and Illustrations By Steve Watts, 1992

  No one knows when, where and how our prehistoric relatives first brought their fiber skills together to form the Ancestral Net. Perhaps it was a child's string figure gone awry... or the sartorial pause in which order was discovered in the chaos of tangled cordage on the shelter floor.. .or the creative combination of knots necessary to secure the previous bundles of food, medicine and tools for the treacherous crossing of a river approaching flood stage. . .or the attempt to recreate the symmetry of the orb web weaving spiders' traps hung by the water's edge highlighted by the dew, sunlight or an early frost.

  Yet, sometime, somehow-in all places where our human antecedents dwelled—patterns expressed themselves with fingers, shuttles and string.. .and, the Net became a part of our common technological heritage.

  It has brought food to our hearths, born our burdens, bound our hair and when stretched between trees and house posts lulled us to sleep and dreams. The rhythm of mesh upon mesh survives — a symbol of our connectedness—"networked". . .we are joined.

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  "Net tying, like all traditional skills, is best learned firsthand."

  net- n [ME nett, fr. OE; akin to OHG nezzi net, L nodus knot] 1. a. an open-meshed fabric twisted, knotted, or woven together at regular intervals b. something made of net as (1): a device for catching fish, birds, mammals or insects...

  Although loose weaving and string looping methods are sometimes referred to as "netting" (generically as in Webster) what we are focused on here (more specifically) is a technique most commonly labeled "knotted netting". These true nets are created by the repeated tying of knots in a measured pattern resulting in a series of square or diamond shaped spaces called "meshes". In this respect nets are "tied" — not woven.

  Knotted netting can be accomplished by freehand techniques alone, without the use of specialized tools (See the next article in this issue). The first nets were most likely constructed in this way. But, at some point, net makers throughout the world developed two simple devices designed to control the string delivery and the mesh size and thereby increase the speed and uniformity of their work. These tools were and are—the netting needle and the mesh stick.

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  NETTING NEEDLES

  Netting needles (also called "shuttles" and "bobbins") come in both "open" and "closed" styles. Variations in design and ornamentation occur, yet remarkably similar models are found worldwide. This has led many to present complicated and convoluted diffusion scenarios designed to explain this uniformity. But, finding common solutions to common problems seems to be a more likely and straightforward answer.

  The needle's purpose is to transport stored (yet easily released) lengths of cordage throughout the knotting series smoothly, with speed and control. Well made needles therefore tend to be strong, yet light in weight and in possession of a certain undefinable "grace" which allows them to turn, slide, glide (or swim?) through the tight spaces they must. Hardwoods, bone, antler, horn and ivory are the materials of choice when making netting needles. These media allow the craftsman to create thin, springy tools capable of taking a smooth finish. A fine polish develops with use, further eliminating snag and drag problems. The patina of a well worn needle attests to the net maker's skills and commitment.

  MESH STICKS

  Mesh sticks (also called "gauges" and "sizers") are used to control the distance between knots. This insures that the mesh size meets the requirements for the net's function (not too small or too large). It also results in a finished product which exhibits symmetry. The net makers familiarity with his variously sized mesh sticks allows him to predict the amount of cordage and the number of meshes required to produce a net of given size for a given purpose.<
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  The mesh stick's width and thickness determine the mesh size. Length is a matter of personal choice. Some traditional net makers prefer a stick only long enough to sit in the single mesh being tied. Others opt for a longer tool which rests in several previously formed meshes at once.

  Smoothness of finish is important here as well; so hardwood, bone, horn, antler and ivory once again prove to be the chosen materials for mesh stick production.

  Flat, oval, lenticular and teardrop cross sections have all been observed in aboriginal models. This may reflect personal or cultural preferences. Some mesh sticks are simplicity itself, while others (the Inuit types come to mind) exhibit various sized sections, handles and awl or marlinspike type points for knot separation. While some veteran net makers can, by their experience, tie a very uniform net using fingers and eyesight alone to gauge mesh size, a mesh stick is used by most and could be considered a must for the novice.

  Mesh and Tool Size Considerations

  The size of net's mesh is determined by the net's use. In fishing this is related to both the size of the fish and net type (dip, trap, gill, drag, etc.). Mammal and bird nets (as in Great Basin and Australian Aborigine examples) exhibit mesh size appropriate to specific species. Burden nets (bags, gear slings, etc.) have meshes related to the size and weight of the anticipated articles to be contained. And, so on. . .

  A mesh stick's width reflects the length of one of the four sides of the mesh it produces. Is it too obvious to say that the mesh stick determines the size of the finished mesh, and/or the size of the mesh is determined by the mesh stick width? Maybe so, but I said it anyway.

  A netting needle's width should be narrower than the mesh stick being used.

  The String

  The most time consuming aspect of net making in the aboriginal style is not the net tying (which goes steadily and smoothly once mastered), but rather the making of the string itself. Materials must be gathered, processed and then spun or laid into thread or cordage of the correct dimensions — in adequate quantity for the size and style of net desired. Several yards to several miles may be required (from a small bag to a gill net which spans the river's width). A net maker working on a major project may pass the work of many others through his fingers—the needles loaded with the efforts of an entire community.

  Rawhide, sinew, flax, dogbane, cedar, milkweed, cotton, wool.. .the list goes on. Throughout man's history nets have probably been tied from almost every fiber capable of being made into string. There are cultural preferences, of course. The Paiutes insist on dogbane for their rabbit nets, while Northwest Coast peoples look to stinging nettle fibers for their large deep-water nets.

  Once again the importance of string becomes paramount when considering the aboriginal lifestyle. If a net means food, then indeed the string is the "thread of life" itself.

  The Knot

  Overhands, figure eights, square knots and others are often found in traditionally tied nets. But, it is the sheet bend (also called the "mesh knot") that is pandemically the net maker's knot of choice.

  An excellent knot for joining two lengths of rope, the sheet bend serves in netting to link the meshes. When properly tied it will not flip or slip as will a square knot, and it is better suited to use with a mesh stick than are overhands or figure eights.

  What may seem difficult at first, soon becomes a familiar task. With each tying of the sheet bend the pattern is reinforced.

  Two styles and sizes of netting needles.

  The Knot

  *These are "netting notes"—not step-by-step instructions. Net tying, like all traditional skills, is best learned firsthand.

  My thanks go to John White for teaching me and to Pegg Mathewson for inspiring me. They are my connections to the ancient world of net tying—the most recent knots in a series of meshes reaching back.. .back to the first net and beyond.

  POMO NETTING - As Learned From Craig Bates By Norm Kidder

  POMO NETTING Part 2

  A DOGBANE NET

  Photos and Text By Jeff Gottleib

  In the Fall of 93 when the dogbane was ready to pick, I started making and storing cordage. I got the idea to make a net. My friend Barry Keegan sent me the Porno netting techniques published by Norm Kidder (see pages 81-82).

  The sizable spool I had collected was all done in the hand. I would not like to speculate how long it took to make per foot.

  If I was going to make a net, I wanted something useful, so I settled on a seine. I had used them many times as a kid, to collect fishing bait. And if I was going to make a seine, I might as well make a good-sized one. My "lever" looked long enough at 12 1/2 feet. That big fat spool of cordage made only 3 rows of 1 1/2" meshes. I decided not to make a gauge stick, and to use my fingers, because I would always have them with me. I just formed each loop around my left index and middle fingers. I soon could eyeball a mesh I was making and tie its knot so as to make it a uniform size (see next page).

  Thigh-rolling dogbane (Apocynum) fibers.

  I thigh-rolled the rest of the cordage. Taking a dozen dogbane stems, I quickly stripped the bark off the wood, and buffed all the bark fiber together in a bundle, taking care not to tangle it into a ball. Dampening my left pant let made thigh-rolling easier. Practice increased speed considerably.

  I discovered that 12 stems made approximately 25 feet of cordage, which filled my netting needle. This was enough to knot one row of meshes. With practice, I could turn 12 stems into a row of meshes in two hours and 15 minutes. The net, at 30" deep, consists of 33 rows of meshes. This means it contains approximately 825 feet of cordage and took more than 75 hours to make. Knowing how slowly I made the first 10 rows, it was more like 90 hours total. It required approximately 400 stems of dogbane. This does not include the lengths of two-ply, three-lay heavy cord that hold the row of sinkers at the bottom and floats at the top.

  The floats are sections of the trunk of a basswood sapling, drilled out like spools. The weights are flat cobbles of a soft schist, in which I ground notches for tying places.

  Cordmaking grew tedious as the months wore on. Knotting the meshes was a pleasure, very soothing and satisfying. I took the net with me where ever I went and worked on it while commuting by train into New York City, at meetings, while watching TV. Of all the primitive skills I practice, this project was, for more people, a part of their living memory. Several people volunteered information about their families in Cuba, South America and elsewhere, who had been fishermen and had worked on their nets in the same way.

  The Hudson River Museum expressed interest in exhibiting the net. I had to rush the last 10 rows or so. That took a lot of the pleasure out of it. I had to deliver the finished net immediately in order to make the exhibit deadline. This meant that it never saw water! When I get it back in January '95 I will add ten more rows of meshes, making the depth a little over 3' and replace the sinkers with spool-shaped soapstone ones. I think they will work a bit better, although the flat cobbles are more regionally authentic. Once I am finished in the spring, I will take it to water and catch something in it! Readers, feel free to write me to find out the results.

  Using a netting neddle to create the mesh.

  THE FIRE WATCHERS

  Text, Photos and Illustrations By Doug Elliott, ©1992

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  SWAMP DANCERS: Cattails

  "Supermarket of the swamp" — that's what Euell Gibbons, the dean of American wild food foragers, called the common cattail.

  It is said that you could never starve living next to a cattail marsh. I think this is close to the truth. You can hardly find a more versatile wild plant.

  Young, tender cattail shoots, when they first poke out of the cool water in early spring, have been called "Cossack asparagus" because it is a traditional spring food among country folk in Russia. Sturtevant's extract from Clarke's Travels in Russia tells of people" devouring cattail shoots raw with a degree of avidity as though it had been a religious observance. It was to be seen in all the streets a
nd in every house, bound into faggots. They peel off the outer rind and find a tender white part of the stem which for about its length of 18 inches, afford a crisp, cooling and very pleasant article of food."

  If you want to try this spring delicacy, just head for your favorite swamp when the weather warms and look around the edge of the old faded, winter-beaten cattail leaves and stalks for the new green shoots poking up out of the water. Just wade on out and start pulling. Each shoot usually breaks off at the base where it joins the rootstock. The base of these shoots have a tender core a few inches long. They are mild flavored and can be eaten raw right out of the swamp (Be sure of the water quality.), or they can be stir-fried, steamed, added to soups, or used in salads.

  A ready snack of tender spring shoots.

  In late spring or early summer, the part that later becomes the "cattail" is forming. It is composed of two cigar-shaped spikes, one above the other. The one beneath is the seed-bearing pistillate, or female flower, that later turns into the brown "cattail." The top one is the pollen-bearing staminate, or male flower. The dry stem that protrudes from the top of the brown cattail later in the season is the remains of this male flower. Just before they come into bloom, both members are green and wrapped in a sheath or husk. At this stage the top, staminate spikes can be picked and steamed for twenty minutes and served with salt and butter like miniature corn-on-the-cob. I call them "cat-on-the-cob" and they are one of my favorite wild foods. They have their own unique flavor which to me is reminiscent of corn, though some folks say they taste like artichoke hearts. Even if you don't like artichokes, or corn, there still is a good chance you will like cattail tops.