Midnight in Chernobyl
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Petrovsky, Alexander, 91, 103–4, 360–61
pets, abandoned, 254
Philippines, 331
Pikalov, Vladimir, 155, 241, 249, 254, 259, 275, 430n, 432n
Pioneer camps, 209, 252, 253, 265, 274
pioneer walls, 282–83
Pismenny, Vyacheslav, 213, 216
plutonium, 26, 31, 32, 34, 37, 40, 41, 44, 60, 63, 247, 320
plutonium 239, 26, 88, 248
PNEs, 399n
Poland, 174, 176, 178
Polesia, 148, 165, 353
Polesia State Radiological and Ecological Reserve, 353
Polesskoye, 186, 217–18, 301–2
Politburo, 14, 112, 122, 172–76, 181–86, 201, 212, 246, 264, 266, 270–74, 281, 286, 305, 311, 321, 327, 330
Politburo Operations Group, 181, 184, 243, 249, 251
polonium, 27, 29
Polygon, 221
Poroshenko, Petro, 363–65
positive scram effect, 71–73
positive void coefficient, 37–38, 63, 66, 83, 85–90, 268, 286, 318, 321, 348
Powers, Francis Gary, 45
Pozdishev, Erik, 464n
Pravda, 71, 240, 274, 294, 306, 319, 324, 326, 327
Pravda Ukrainy, 175
Pravik, Nadia, 237
Pravik, Vladimir, 58–59, 91–92, 95–96, 101–3, 227–28, 307
death of, 236
pre-installation overhaul, 12
pressure tubes, 62
Prianichnikov, Veniamin, 143–44, 150, 244–46, 334, 369
Pripyat, 11–24, 47, 54, 74
abandonment of, 257–60, 301, 336–38
aftermath of explosion, 91–110
airlift of injured patients, 148, 150–53, 158, 205, 219–20
April 25, 5:00 p.m., 46–59
April 25, 11:55 p.m., 75–90
April 26, 1:28 a.m., 91–110
April 26, 1:30 a.m., 111–31
April 26, 6:15 a.m., 132–51
April 27, 152–66
architecture, 137–38, 258
as atomgrad, 11, 17, 23, 49, 130, 258, 301
cleanup efforts, 241–60, 278–98, 310, 332–33
construction of, 11–24, 362, 393n
economy, 17–18, 21–22, 137
employment, 21–22
evacuation of, 117, 123, 126, 127, 129–31, 149, 153, 155–66, 185–86, 202, 208–10, 217–20, 257–60, 301–13, 315, 328, 431n, 432n, 433n, 449n, 486n
as ghost town, 166, 257–60, 301, 314, 336–38
government response to accident, 111–31, 138–39, 179–80, 258–60, 263, 310, 432n
helicopter bombing operation, 160–64, 166, 179–82, 187–99, 202, 204, 281, 285, 341, 433n, 443n, 446n
hospitalization of injured, 121, 135–36, 146–53, 157
intruders kept out of, 257–60
investigation of accident, 261–77
liquidation campaign, 239–60, 296, 310, 332–33, 359, 471n, 475n
looting, 257, 302–4, 311, 336–37
1982 accident, 69–70
public informed of accident, 117, 124, 129, 155–66, 202
radiation survey flights, 140–46, 155–56, 160–64, 189, 248
radiation threat to public, 106–7, 129–30, 139–40, 149, 155–66, 202, 208–10, 247–53, 257–60, 301–13, 326–35, 355–56, 486n
roadblocks, 129, 143, 150
tourism, 356, 359
trees and forests, 23, 247, 248–49, 256–57, 312, 330, 353, 462n, 486n
in 2011, 352–56
in 2016, 336–38, 363–65
Pripyat Communist Party, 124, 127–28
Pripyat River, 7, 8, 47, 49, 191, 192, 202, 244, 402n
Problem Number One, 31–32, 38
Prometheus myth, 23–24
propaganda, 174, 240, 306–8, 311–12, 344, 437n
Proskuryakov, Viktor, 93, 99
protons, 26
Protsenko, Maria, 136–38, 138, 140, 142–43, 158–59, 161, 162–66, 258–60, 309–11, 333, 361, 369
Prushinsky, Boris, 113, 114, 118, 121–22, 124–27, 128, 425n
pump system, 62, 83, 84, 85, 87, 93–95, 124, 342
Pushkin, Alexander, 325
Eugene Onegin, 78
PVA glue, 255, 256
pyatachok, 61, 62–63, 87
radiation, 1–3, 22, 25–45, 60–62, 70, 73, 105–9, 129
cloud, 169–86
containment efforts after accident, 128–29, 153–56, 160–64, 166, 174, 176, 179–82, 187–99, 202–16, 241–48, 278–98
core meltdown risk, 191–95, 202–16, 244–46
fallout, 130, 181, 247–48, 251, 255–57, 277, 282, 315, 326, 329
fatal dose, 99, 104, 197, 221, 225, 238, 279, 359, 419n
genetic effects of exposure to, 329–30, 355–56, 486n
global contamination, 169–86, 248, 260, 269, 277, 327–30, 353–54
health effects and symptoms, 26, 28–31, 78, 89, 100–110, 117–18, 130, 135–36, 143, 147–51, 164, 180, 185, 192–93, 207, 220–38, 242, 243, 247–48, 251, 253, 266–67, 290, 299–301, 312, 322, 326, 333–35, 355–60, 454n, 481n, 486n
history of, 25–45
ionizing, 11, 27–31, 102, 257
levels after Chernobyl explosion, 105–9, 116–18, 123–31, 136, 140–46, 153–56, 160–64, 176, 180–84, 189–99, 207–8, 211–15, 226, 241–60, 278–98, 300, 316, 319, 352–53, 423n, 481n
liquidation campaign, 239–60, 296, 310, 332–33, 359, 471n, 475n
long-term effects on environment, 329–31, 354–56
Reactor Number 4 explosion, 87–90
survey flights, 140–46, 155–56, 160–64, 189, 248
threat to public, 106–7, 129–30, 139–40, 149, 155–66, 202, 208–10, 247–53, 257–60, 301–13, 326–35, 355–56, 359–60, 486n
Radiation Effects Reactor, 30
radio, 129, 148–49, 426n
propaganda, 148–49
response to Chernobyl accident, 156–57, 175, 179, 208–9
Radio Kiev, 179
Radio Moscow, 175, 179
Radio Sweden, 208
radium, 29
Radium Girls, 29
radon, 27
RBMK reactors, 12, 20, 53–54, 60–74, 77, 121, 154, 263–64, 267–77, 318, 321–22, 331, 346, 349, 404n, 405n, 406n, 408n, 465n
design and construction defects, 12–13, 19–22, 62–74, 268–77, 286, 308, 315, 317–18, 321, 346–49, 408n
history of, 60–74
maintenance shutdown and mistakes, 75–90
RBMK-1000, 63–74, 77–78, 107, 194, 315, 318, 321, 405n
technical refit, 321–22
termination, 273, 276
RDS-1, 31
Reactor Number 1. See Unit One
Reactor Number 2. See Unit Two
Reactor Number 3. See Unit Three
Reactor Number 4. See Unit Four
Reactor Number 5. See Unit Five
Reactor Number 6. See Unit Six
Read, Piers Paul, 14
Reagan, Ronald, 19, 176, 200
response to Chernobyl accident, 200–201
Red Forest, 256, 312, 330, 353, 462n
refugees, conditions of, 217–20, 301–16, 320–21
Reikhtman, Georgi, 411n, 429n
relief funds, for displaced persons, 304–5
Report on the Causes of the Accident in Unit Four of the Chernobyl AES, 267, 268
resettlement of displaced citizens, 305–6, 320–21
Riga, 240
RK-1000 reactor, 405n
Robinson, Cliff, 170–71, 370
Robitnycha Hazeta, 175
robots, 287–91, 338–39, 357
Roentgen, Wilhelm, 28
Rogozhkin, Boris, 315, 316, 319, 345, 420n
Romania, 331
Rome, 176
Rosen, Morris, 210, 214–15
Rovno, 181, 305
Rozvazhev, 218
runaway, reactor, 37, 64, 65, 71–72, 83, 347
rundown unit, 75–76
Russia
(post-Soviet Union), 359
Russia (pre-Soviet Union), 13
Revolution of 1917, 13, 16, 183
ruthenium, 27–28, 267, 320
Ryzhkov, Nikolai, 115, 118–19, 172, 176, 181, 182, 184–86, 202, 203, 243, 251, 272, 277, 297, 322, 370, 415n, 436n, 441n, 460n
Sakharov, Andrei, 270, 328
Samoilenko, Yuri, 288
sand, dropped on nuclear ruins, 160–64, 166, 179–82, 187–99, 202, 204, 281, 285, 341
Sandstedt, Karl Erik, 171
Sarcophagus, 250, 273, 278–98, 307, 312, 330, 338–44, 363, 470n, 471n
Cascade Wall, 283–84, 291
Complex Expedition, 340–44, 364
construction, 281–98
design, 280–82, 293
Elephant’s Foot, 339–40, 342, 343
Kurchatov task force exploration of, 284–86, 338–44
limitations of, 344
Mammoth, 292–94, 296–98
New Safe Confinement, 364–66
ventilation and sprinkler systems, 297
Scandinavia, 169
contamination from Chernobyl, 169–77
Schepin, Oleg, 184
Scherbina, Boris, 119, 124, 126–31, 152–56, 160–62, 172, 179–86, 190, 192–94, 201, 203, 270, 271, 288, 292, 328, 340, 370, 426n, 431n, 439n
Scherbitsky, Vladimir, 8, 112, 116–17, 131, 176, 182–84, 185, 203, 208, 252, 253, 370–71, 426n, 441n, 449n, 464n, 465n
Second Administration Building, 89–90
Selsyn monitors, 79, 86, 87
Semipalatinsk, 1, 221
Shasharin, Gennadi, 268–69, 272, 434n
Shashenok, Vladimir, 101, 136, 299, 427n
Shavrey, Ivan, 58, 103–4
Shavrey, Leonid, 58, 95–96, 103, 104
Shcherbak, Iurii, 209, 449n
Shevardnadze, Edward, 200–201, 436n
Shevchenko, 291
Shultz, George, 178
Siberia, 18, 39, 120
Sidorenko, Viktor, 424n
Silayev, Ivan, 185, 192, 194–95, 197, 206, 207, 210, 212, 215, 250, 280, 442n, 446n
silver iodide, 184
SIUR, 79, 86, 412n
Skazochny, 205
Sklyarov, Vitali, 74, 111–12, 116, 123–24, 126, 128, 131, 345, 371, 426n, 432n
Slavsky, Efim, 43, 112, 119–20, 201, 250, 267, 268, 270–72, 280, 281, 292, 296–98, 322, 371, 408n
Slavutych, 306, 310, 320–21, 322, 329, 337, 478n
radiation threat to, 320–21
Slavyansk, 9
Slichenko, Nikolai, 11
SMT-1, 280
Socialism, 33, 120, 273
Society of Hunters and Fishermen, 254
sodium 24, 226
Sokolov, Sergey, 239–40
solar energy, 357
Soroka, Oleg, 463n
Soviet Academy of Sciences, 119, 120–21, 154, 276, 277, 322, 325
Soviet armed forces, 12, 113–14, 173, 240, 390n, 481n
bio-robot campaign, 288–91, 321
liquidation campaign, 239–40, 296, 310, 332–33, 359, 471n, 475n
response to Chernobyl accident, 113–14, 129, 140–46, 152–56, 158–64, 166, 173, 174, 179–82, 185, 187–99, 202, 204–8, 239–60, 273, 278–98, 330, 468n
Soviet Life, 74
Soviet Red Cross Society, 302
Sovietskaya Rossiya, 330
Soviet Union, 12–16
collapse of, 331, 333, 343, 345, 348, 354, 364, 441n
corruption, 12, 15, 19–22, 67–74, 311–13, 327–28, 347–48, 365
defense spending, 12, 390n
economy, 12–16, 34, 39–40, 118, 177, 181, 249, 327–31
Era of Stagnation, 12–22, 42, 323
glasnost, 240, 312, 327, 328
government response to Chernobyl accident, 111–31, 138–39, 152–66, 172–86, 192–204, 208–9, 218–19, 239–41, 249–54, 261–77, 306–13, 322–31, 362
internal passport system, 209
1970s nuclear expansion, 9–16
nuclear history, 31–45
nuclear weapons, 9, 31–33, 42–43, 201
oil and gas, 39
perestroika, 19, 322, 323, 327, 329, 330
space exploration, 9, 42, 50–51, 324–25
war in Afghanistan, 19, 240, 246, 294, 298, 327, 329, 330
World War II, 34, 209, 236, 279, 294, 333, 364, 397n
soybeans, 355
Soyuzatomenergo, 70, 97–98, 113, 115, 118
space exploration, 9, 42, 50–51, 324–25
Special Battalion 731, 190, 243
Special Zone, 181, 182, 241, 242, 244, 247, 259, 279, 291, 298, 338, 440n
Sputnik, 51
Sredmash, 9, 34, 39, 40, 43–44, 60, 62, 66–68, 74, 119, 174–75, 189, 201, 215–16, 220, 221, 222, 223, 245–46, 250, 255, 258, 263, 266, 267, 268, 271, 280–98, 307, 308, 322, 340, 341, 400n, 405n, 409n
US-605, 280–98, 307, 338–44, 365
Stalin, Joseph, 14, 32, 34, 59, 137, 327
Star Wars program, 19
State Committee for Nuclear Safety, 84, 318
State Committee for the Utilization of Atomic Energy, 174–75, 400n
State Committee on Safety in the Atomic Power Industry, 400n
steel, 12
Steinberg, Nikolai, 69–70, 347–48, 452n
Stockholm, 170
contamination from Chernobyl, 170–77
Stolyarchuk, Boris, 55, 57, 83, 86, 87, 89, 92, 110, 371
stolypin cars, 320, 477n
Strauss, Lewis, 398n
strong force, 25
strontium, 226, 320, 354
strontium 90, 27, 29, 88, 248, 257, 329, 402n
Structure S, 342
Studsvik, 171
submarines, nuclear, 34, 42, 68, 77, 99, 107, 136, 241, 453n
Supreme Court of the USSR, 309, 314, 345
trial of Chernobyl plant operators, 314–20
Supreme Soviet, 174
Sverdlovsk, 270
Sweden, 170, 331, 435n
contamination from Chernobyl, 170–77, 200
Swedish National Defense Research Institute, 171
Tarakanov, Nikolai, 278–80, 288–91, 321, 371
Tashkent, 10
TASS, 174, 175, 312
telephone:
alert system, 97
lines cut after accident, 129, 146, 148, 422n, 426n
television, 19, 52, 280, 289, 292, 295, 327, 333
response to Chernobyl crisis, 150, 175–79, 208–9, 215, 239–41, 250, 266, 274, 311–14, 327–30, 355
Teller, Edward, 399n
tellurium 132, 267
Telyatnikov, Leonid, 104, 300, 307, 319, 334, 420n
Thatcher, Margaret, 307
thirty-kilometer zone, 186, 194, 202, 208, 215, 241, 249, 251–59, 301–13, 314, 328, 332–33, 352–56, 359, 364
thorium, 27, 358
thorium reactors, 358
Three Mile Island accident, 73–74, 191, 194, 271, 331, 357
Tishura, Vladimir, 236
Tokyo Electric Power Company, 356–57
Tolstoy, Leo, 325
Tomsk-7, 40, 120
“too cheap to meter,” 39, 398n
Toptunov, Leonid, 50–57, 76, 79–89, 308, 410n, 412n, 413n, 414n, 445n
death of, 238, 268, 308, 318
in Hospital Number Six, 223, 225, 228, 231, 232, 238
rehabilitated reputation of, 349
role in Chernobyl accident, 79–89, 92–93, 108–10, 134, 135, 149, 151, 223, 225, 230, 268, 317, 318, 347
Toptunova, Vera, 228, 230, 231, 238
Tormozin, Andrei, 300, 334
Torzhok, 153
tourism, 356, 359
toys, 339
trees and forests, 23, 247, 248–49, 256–57, 312, 321, 330, 353, 355, 462n, 486n
Tregub, Yuri, 82–83, 86, 94–95, 98–99
trial of Chernobyl operators, 308–9, 314–20, 345, 362, 474n, 475n, 477n
Trinos, Vladimir, 447n
Tripoli, 201
trit
ium, 41
Troieshchyna, 306
True Communism, 13, 34, 52
Tsar Bomba, 1
Tumanov, Alexander, 89–90
Turbine Number Eight, 76, 86, 99–101
aftermath of explosion, 99–101, 104, 106
explosion, 88–90
maintenance shutdown, 76, 80, 83–90, 117, 127
Turbine Number Seven, 95, 100
Twenty-Fifth Motorized Rifle Division, 258, 353
Ukraine, 1–3, 7–9, 47, 48, 63–64, 76, 152, 175, 181, 191, 200, 208, 248, 251, 258, 320, 345, 353, 354, 359
government response to Chernobyl accident, 111–31, 172, 182–84, 203, 208–9, 252–53, 261–63, 332, 436n
independence from USSR, 333, 337
radiation threat to Kiev, 182–84, 194, 204, 208–10, 251–53, 326
resettlement of displaced citizens, 305–6
Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, 247, 259, 329
Ukrainian Communist Party, 8, 112, 182, 203, 208–9, 261, 262, 274
Ukrainian Criminal Code, 309
Uman, 344
unemployment, 21
United Nations, 359, 360
General Assembly, 33
International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, 33
Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, 359
United States, 9, 19, 45, 73, 176, 200, 277, 400n
media, 177, 178, 179, 239, 266, 274, 299, 307, 312
nuclear industry, 31, 40, 61–62, 73–74, 331, 356, 357, 358, 409n
nuclear weapons, 19, 26, 29–32, 33, 36, 37, 201, 279, 396n
radiation threat to, 201
response to Chernobyl crisis, 177–79, 200–201, 210, 214–15, 228–30, 232–34, 239, 266, 307
space exploration, 9, 51
Three Mile Island accident, 73–74, 191, 194, 271, 331, 357
U-2 spy planes, 45
Unit One, 56, 58, 67, 68–70, 73, 102, 109, 207, 249, 281, 290, 306, 321, 332, 337, 468n
back online, 290–91, 306
1982 accident, 69–70, 112
restoration efforts, 286–91, 306
Unit Two, 56, 58, 69, 73, 102, 109, 134, 204, 249, 281, 321, 329, 332, 337, 469n, 470n
Unit Three, 56, 59, 69, 73, 76, 84, 90, 91, 96, 101, 103, 107, 128, 146, 196, 203, 204, 205, 211, 224, 231, 243, 249, 278, 281, 287, 288, 290, 293, 295, 306, 321, 332, 337, 341, 360, 419n, 420n
back online, 321–22
construction of, 56
fires and damage, 101, 102, 104, 108, 109, 110
restoration efforts, 286–91
in 2016, 336–37
Unit Four, 20, 47, 49, 53–57, 59, 69, 71, 73, 76, 107, 410n
aftermath of explosion, 91–110
April 25, 5:00 p.m., 46–59
April 25, 11:55 p.m., 75–90
April 26, 1:28 a.m., 91–110
April 26, 1:30 a.m., 111–31
April 26, 6:15 a.m., 132–51
April 27, 152–66
casualties, 89, 94, 99, 101, 117, 118, 122, 127, 136, 179, 208–9, 220, 229, 232, 235–38, 265, 268, 299–300, 312, 315, 326, 334, 338