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48. Fagan and Ash, “New Policing,” 134.
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51. “Racial Disparities in D.C. Policing.”
52. Elizabeth Jones, “The Profitability of Racism: Discriminatory Design in the Carceral State,” University of Louisville Law Review 57 (2018): 61, https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/branlaj57&div=8&id=&page=; Rose M. Brewer and Nancy A. Heitzeg, “The Racialization of Crime and Punishment: Criminal Justice, Color-Blind Racism, and the Political Economy of the Prison Industrial Complex,” American Behavioral Scientist 51, no. 5 (2008): 625–44.
53. Bernadette Atuahene, “Predatory Cities,” California Law Review 108, no. 1 (February 2020): 107–82, https://heinonline-org.proxygt-law.wrlc.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/calr108&i=107; Bernadette Atuahene, “The Scandal of the Predatory City,” New York Times, June 11, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/11/opinion/coronavirus-cities-property-taxes.html?smid=tw-share.
54. Joanna C. Schwartz, “Police Indemnification,” New York University Law Review 89, no. 3 (2014): 913, https://www.nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-89-3-Schwartz.pdf. Between 2006 and 2011, taxpayers in 44 large metro areas paid out more than $735 billion to victims of police misconduct.
55. “Million Dollar Blocks,” https://chicagosmilliondollarblocks.com/#section-4, accessed July 23, 2020. Emily Badger, “How Mass Incarceration Creates ‘Million Dollar Blocks’ in Poor Neighborhoods,” Washington Post, July 30, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/07/30/how-mass-incarceration-creates-million-dollar-blocks-in-poor-neighborhoods.
56. Jason P. Nance, “Students, Security and Race,” Emory Law Journal 63, no. 1 (2013): 28–29, https://law.emory.edu/elj/_documents/volumes/63/1/articles/nance.pdf.
57. Melissa Diliberti, Michael Jackson, Samuel Correa, Zoe Padgett, and Rachel Hansen, Crime, Violence, Discipline, and Safety in U.S. Public Schools: Findings from the School Survey on Crime and Safety: 2017–18 (Washington, DC: US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2019), https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2019/2019061.pdf. See also Sandra Black, Laura Giuliano, and Ayushi Narayan, “Civil Rights Data Show More Work Is Needed to Reduce Inequities in K-12 Schools,” White House Blog, December 9, 2016, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2016/12/08/civil-rights-data-show-more-work-needed-reduce-inequities-k-12-schools; Stephen Sawchuk, “What Districts Should Know About Policing School Police,” Education Week, October 1, 2019, https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2019/10/02/what-districts-should-know-about-policing-school.html.
58. Megan French-Marcelin and Sarah Hinger, Bullies in Blue: The Origins and Consequences of School Policing (American Civil Liberties Union, April 2017), https://www.aclu.org/report/bullies-blue-origins-and-consequences-school-policing.
59. “We Came to Learn,” Advancement Project and Alliance for Educational Justice, https://wecametolearn.com/?emci=5f211b14-47a5-ea11-9b05-00155d0394bb&emdi=5728ac94-8da5-ea11-9b05-00155d0394bb&ceid=2360859#assaultat-map, accessed July 24, 2020.
60. Moriah Balingit et al., “Fueled by Protests, School Districts Across the Country Cut Ties with Police,” Washington Post, June 12, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2020/06/12/schools-police-george-floyd-protests.
61. “Black Agenda 2020,” Black to the Future Action Fund, published February 2020, https://black2thefuture.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/BlackAgenda2020.pdf, 22–24.
62. Jim Newell, “The Thin Blue Line Is in Retreat,” Slate, June 8, 2020, https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2020/06/police-reform-is-popular-now.html, citing Monmouth University Polling Institute national poll on the George Floyd protests.
63. Nicole Chavez, “Pennsylvania Senator Calls for Investigation into Golf Course That Called Police on Black Women,” CNN, April 29, 2018, https://www.cnn.com/2018/04/29/us/pennsylvania-golf-course-black-women/index.html; David Williams, “Someone Called Police on an African-American Politician While She Campaigned in Her Wisconsin District,” CNN, September 21, 2018, https://www.cnn.com/2018/09/20/us/wisconsin-candidate-police-trnd/index.html.
64. Brandon Giggs, “Living While Black: Here Are All the Routine Activities for Which Police Were Called on African-Americans This Year,” CNN, December 28, 2018, https://www.cnn.com/2018/12/20/us/living-while-black-police-calls-trnd/index.html.
65. Elijah Anderson, “The White Space,” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 1 (2015): 13, doi: 10.1177/2332649214561306.
66. Richard Fausset and Rick Rojas, “Where Ahmaud Arbery Ran, Neighbors Cast Wary Eyes,” New York Times, May 22, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/article/satilla-shores-ahmaud-arbery-killing.html.
67. Khushbu Shah, “Ahmaud Arbery: Anger Mounts over Killing of Black Jogger Caught on Video,” Guardian, May 6, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/may/06/ahmaud-arbery-shooting-georgia.
68. Khushbu Shah, “Ahmaud Arbery Killing: Man Called 911 to Report ‘Black Male Running’ Prior to Shooting,” Guardian, May 7, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/may/07/ahmaud-arbery-killing-man-called-911-report-black-male-running-shooting.
69. Michael Brice-Saddler and Cleve R. Wootson Jr., “Ex-Detective Charged in Death of Ahmaud Arbery Lost Power to Make Arrests After Skipping Use-of-Force Training,” Washington Post, May 14, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/05/13/ex-detective-accused-death-ahmaud-arbery-lost-power-make-arrests-after-skipping-use-of-force-training.
70. Richard Fausset, “Two Weapons, a Chase, a Killing, and No Charges,” New York Times, published April 26, 2020, updated May 17, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/26/us/ahmed-arbery-shooting-georgia.html.
71. Mihir Zaveri, “Man Who Fired at a Black Teenager Asking for Directions Is Convicted,” New York Times, October 13, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/13/us/jeffrey-zeigler-brennan-walker-trial.html; Jasper Scherer, “Fla. Loud Music’ Murder: Firing into Car Full of Teens Playing Rap Music Not ‘Self-Defense,’ Court Rules,” Washington Post, November 18, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/11/18/fla-loud-music-murder-firing-into-car-full-of-teens-playing-rap-music-not-self-defense-court-rules; Greg Botelho, “What Happened the Night Trayvon Martin Died,” CNN, updated May 23, 2012, https://www.cnn.com/2012/05/18/justice/florida-teen-shooting-details/index.html#:~:text=Trayvon%20Martin%20walked%20into%20a,the%20clerk%2C%20then%20walked%20out.
72. Giffords Law Center and SPLC, “‘Stand Your Ground’ Kills: How These NRA-Backed Laws Promote Racist Violence,” SPLC, splcenter.org, 15–16. https://www.splcenter.org/sites/default/files/_stand_your_ground_kills_-_how_these_nra-backed_laws_promote_racist_violence_1.pdf.
73. “Georgia: Concealed Carry Reciprocity Map & Gun Laws,” US Concealed Carry Association, https://www.usconcealedcarry.com/resources/ccw_reciprocity_map/ga-gun-laws.
74. US Commission on Civil Rights, Examining the Race Effects of Stand Your Ground Laws and Related Issues (Washington, DC: USCCR, 2020), 16–17, https://www.usccr.gov/pubs/2020/04-06-Stand-Your-Ground.pdf.
75. Frances Robles, “The Citizen’s Arrest Law Cited in Arbery’s Killing Dates Back to the Civil
War,” New York Times, May 13, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/article/ahmaud-arbery-citizen-arrest-law-georgia.html.
76. An Act to Amend Article 4 of Chapter 4 of Title 17 of the Official Code of Georgia Annotated, Georgia General Assembly, 2019–2020 Regular Session, H.B. 1203, Georgia Congressional Record, http://www.legis.ga.gov/Legislation/en-US/display/20192020/HB/1203.
77. Jacey Fortin, “Congress Moves to Make Lynching a Federal Crime After 120 Years of Failure,” New York Times, updated February 28, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/26/us/politics/anti-lynching-bill.html.
78. Deborah N. Archer, “The Housing Segregation: The Jim Crow Effects of Crime-Free Housing Ordinances,” Michigan Law Review 118, no. 2 (2019): 207–8, https://search-proquest-com.proxygt-law.wrlc.org/docview/2309261491?accountid=36339.
79. Archer, “The Housing Segregation,” 199.
80. Archer, “The Housing Segregation,” 199–200.
81. Archer, “The Housing Segregation,” 199–200, 207.
82. Archer, “The Housing Segregation,” 214.
83. Matthew Desmond and Nicole Valdez, “Unpolicing the Urban Poor: Consequences of Third-Party Policing for Inner-City Women,” American Sociological Review 78, no. 1 (2013): 117–41, doi:10.2307/23469211.
84. J. Brian Charles et al., “How Police and Anti-Crime Measures Reinforce Segregation,” Governing: The Future of States and Localities, January 23, 2019, https://www.governing.com/topics/public-justice-safety/gov-segregation-police.html, citing “Armadillos: Starting a Trend,” Peoria Police Department.
85. Complaint filed by Hope Fair Housing Center against City of Peoria, 16, August 10, 2017, https://www.relmanlaw.com/media/cases/723_Complaint.pdf.
86. Sandra Park and Linda Morris, “Dialing 911 Can Get You Evicted,” American Civil Liberties Union, published April 18, 2019, https://www.aclu.org/blog/womens-rights/violence-against-women/dialing-911-can-get-you-evicted.
87. “Remarks by the President at One Strike Crime Symposium,” updated March 28, 1996, https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1996/03/1996-03-28-president-remarks-at-one-strike-crime-symposium.html; US Department of Housing and Urban Development, Meeting the Challenge: Public Housing Authorities Respond to the “One Strike and You’re Out” Initiative (Washington, DC, 1997), https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Photocopy/183952NCJRS.pdf.
88. Kathryn V. Ramsey, “One-Strike 2.0: How Local Governments Are Distorting a Flawed Federal Eviction Law,” UCLA Law Review 65, no. 5 (June 2018): 1146–99, https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/uclalr65&i=1204; Dept. of Housing and Urban Dev. v. Rucker, 535 U.S. 125 (2002).
89. Elena Goldstein, “Kept Out: Responding to Public Housing No-Trespass Policies,” Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 38, no. 1 (Winter 2003): 215–46, https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/hcrcl38&i=221.
90. Charles et al., “How Police and Anti-Crime Measures Reinforce Segregation.”
91. “311 Reports in SF by Neighborhood 2008–2016,” Anti-Eviction Mapping Project, http://www.antievictionmappingproject.net/311.html, accessed July 26, 2020; Abdallah Fayyad, “The Criminalization of Gentrifying Neighborhoods,” Atlantic, December 12, 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/12/the-criminalization-of-gentrifying-neighborhoods/548837; Mona Lynch et al., “Policing the ‘Progressive’ City: The Racialized Geography of Drug Law Enforcement,” Theoretical Criminology 17 (2013): 335–57, https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480613476986.
92. Lynch, “Policing the ‘Progressive’ City”; Manissa M. Maharawal, “Black Lives Matter, Gentrification and the Security State in the San Francisco Bay Area,” Anthropological Theory 17 (2017): 338, 347, 349, https://doi.org/10.1177/1463499617732501.
93. Rebecca Solnit, “Death by Gentrification: The Killing That Shamed San Francisco,” Guardian, March 21, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/mar/21/death-by-gentrification-the-killing-that-shamed-san-francisco; Adam Hudson, “The Bleaching of San Francisco: Extreme Gentrification and Suburbanized Poverty in the Bay Area,” Truthout, April 27, 2014, http://www.truth-out.org/news/item23305-the-bleaching-of-san-francisco-extreme-gentrification-and-suburbanized-poverty-in-the-bay; Steven Rosenfield, “Is Gentrification Fueling Police Brutality in San Francisco?,” AlterNet, May 15, 2015, https://www.alternet.org/civil-liberties/gentrification-fueling-police-brutality-san-francisco; see also Butler, Chokehold, 75, “As neighborhoods in San Francisco became wealthier and whiter, calls to police for non-emergency reasons like reporting loitering increased almost 300 percent.”
94. Casey Kellogg, “There Goes the Neighborhood: Exposing the Relationship Between Gentrification and Incarceration,” Themis: Research Journal of Justice Studies and Forensic Science 3 (2015): 178, 185–86, https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1031&context=themis; Mischa-von-Derek Aikman, “Gentrification’s Effect on Crime Rates,” Urban Economics, last visited December 11, 2017, https://sites.duke.edu/urbaneconomics/files/2014/04/Gentrification%E2%80%99s-Effect-on-Crime-Rates.pdf; Ayobami Laniyonu, “Coffee Shops and Street Stops: Policing Practices in Gentrifying Neighborhoods,” Urban Affairs Review 54 (2017): 898–930, https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087416689728.
95. Joscha Legewie and Merlin Schaeffer, “Contested Boundaries: Explaining Where Ethnoracial Diversity Provokes Neighborhood Conflict,” American Journal of Sociology 122, no. 1 (2016), https://jlegewie.com/files/Legewie-Schaeffer-2016-ContestedBoundaries.pdf; see also Tanvi Misra, “Yes, 311 Nuisance Calls Are Climbing in Gentrifying Neighborhoods,” Bloomberg CityLab, October 18, 2018, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-10-18/in-new-york-city-gentrification-brings-more-311-calls.
96. Lam Thuy Vo, “They Played Dominoes Outside Their Apartment for Decades. Then the White People Moved In and Police Started Showing Up,” BuzzFeed, June 29, 2018, https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/lamvo/gentrification-complaints-311-new-york.
97. Sam Levin, “Racial Profiling Via Nextdoor.com,” East Bay Express, October 7, 2015, https://www.eastbayexpress.com/oakland/racial-profiling-via-nextdoorcom/Content?oid=4526919.
98. Maria R. Lowe, “Who Looks Suspicious? Racialized Surveillance in a Predominately White Neighborhood,” Social Currents 4 (2016): 34–50, https://doi.org/10.1177/2329496516651638.
99. Kim Lyons, “Amazon’s Ring now reportedly partners with more than 2,000 US police and fire departments,” The Verge, January 31, 2021, https://www.theverge.com/2021/1/31/22258856/amazon-ring-partners-police-fire-security-privacy-cameras; see also Drew Harwell, “Doorbell-Camera Firm Ring Has Partnered with 400 Police Forces, Extending Surveillance Concerns,” Washington Post, August 28, 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.corn/technology/2019/08/28/doorbell-camera-firm-ring-has-partnered-with-police-forces-extending-surveillance-reach.
100. Caroline Haskins, “Amazon’s Home Security Company Is Turning Everyone into Cops,” Vice, February 7, 2019, https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/qvyvzd/amazons-home-security-company-is-turning-everyone-into-cops.
101. Drew Harwell, “Federal Study Confirms Racial Bias of Many Facial Recognition Systems, Cast Doubt on Their Expanding Use,” Washington Post, December 19, 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/12/19/federal-study-confirms-racial-bias-many-facial-recognition-systems-casts-doubt-their-expanding-use.
102. MIT Media Lab, “Gender Shades,” YouTube video, 4:59, February 9, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TWWsW1w-BVo&feature=emb_title; Joy Buolamwini and Timnit Gebru, “Gender Shades: Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in Commercial Gender Classification,” Proceedings of Machine Learning Research 81 (2018), 1–15, http://proceedings.mlr.press/v81/buolamwin118a/buolamwin118a.pdf.
CHAPTER 9: ABOLITION AND REPAIR
1. Wayne Drash and Tawanda Scott Sambou, “Paying Kids Not to Kill,” CNN Health, May 20, 2016, https://www.cnn.com/2016/05/19/health/cash-for-criminals-richmond-california/index.html.
2. Drash and Sambou, “Paying Kids Not to Kill.”
3. “Number of Deaths in 2020,” Gun Violence Archive, https://www.gunviolencearchive.org
/query/14c00d51-0b8d-4dd6-a71e-0caa61f54155/map, accessed August 30, 2020; George Kelly, “Richmond Police Share New Details in Fatal April Shooting: Video Shows Vehicle Sought by Investigators in City’s First Homicide of Year,” East Bay Times, August 13, 2020, https://www.eastbaytimes.com/2020/08/13/richmond-police-share-new-details-in-fatal-april-shooting.
4. Richard Gonzales, “To Reduce Gun Violence, Potential Offenders Offered Support and Cash,” NPR, March 28, 2016, https://www.npr.org/2016/03/28/472138377/to-reduce-gun-violence-potential-offenders-offered-support-and-cash.
5. Richard Wright, 12 Million Black Voices (New York: Basic Books, 2008), 61.
6. Gonzales, “To Reduce Gun Violence”; Tim Murphy, “Did This City Bring Down Its Murder Rate by Paying People Not to Kill?,” Mother Jones, July/August 2014, https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2014/06/richmond-california-murder-rate-gun-death.
7. Lesley McClurg, “Richmond Gun Violence Drops by Half After Offenders Get Support . . . Including Cash,” KQED, September 19, 2019, https://www.kqed.org/science/1947571/richmond-gun-violence-drops-by-half-after-offenders-get-support-including-cash.
8. Murphy, “Did This City Bring Down Its Murder Rate by Paying People Not to Kill?”
9. Brianna Calix, “‘Somebody’s Going to Get Killed.’ Can Fresno Find Money for Program That Cuts Gun Violence?,” Fresno Bee, June 4, 2019, https://www.fresnobee.com/news/local/article231254513.html, citing “The Solution,” https://www.advancepeace.org/about/the-solution.
10. Drash and Sambou, “Paying Kids Not to Kill.”
11. Ellicott C. Matthay et al., “Firearm and Nonfirearm Violence After Operation Peacemaker Fellowship in Richmond, California, 1996–2016,” American Public Health Association 109, no. 11 (2019): 1605–11, doi:10.2105/AJPH.2019.305288.
12. Rachel Huguet et al., “Cost Benefit Analysis: Operation Peacemaker,” University of Southern California, Sol Price School of Public Policy, https://www.advancepeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/6-USC_ONS_CBA.pdf, accessed August 16, 2020.
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