36. Samuel Butler, Evolution, Old and New; or, The theories of Buffon, Dr. Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck, as compared with that of Charles Darwin (London: Hardwicke & Bogue, 1879).
37. Ernst Krause, Life of Erasmus Darwin, with a Preliminary Notice by Charles Darwin (London: Charles Murray, 1879), excerpted in Samuel Butler, Unconscious Memory (London: David Bogue, 1880; reprint, London: Jonathan Cape, 1924), 42 (page citation is to the reprint edition).
38. Samuel Butler, “Barrel-Organs,” Canterbury Press, 17 January 1863; reprinted in Jones, Canterbury Settlement, 196. Butler ascribed this anonymous letter to Bishop Abraham of Wellington; there is reason to believe he planted it himself.
39. Thomas Butler, in Francis Darwin, Letters of Charles Darwin, vol. 1, 144.
40. Charles Darwin, 1876, “Autobiography,” in Francis Darwin, Letters of Charles Darwin, vol. 1, 29.
41. Samuel Butler, Unconscious Memory (London: David Bogue, 1880); reprinted as vol. 6 of The Shrewsbury Edition of the Works of Samuel Butler (London: Jonathan Cape, 1924), 4.
42. Ibid., 12.
43. Charles Darwin, 24 March 1863; quoted in Henry Festing Jones, “Darwin on the Origin of Species: Prefatory Note,” in Jones, Canterbury Settlement, 184–185.
44. Butler, “Darwin Among the Machines,” 208.
45. Samuel Butler, “The Mechanical Creation,” Reasoner (London), 1 July 1865; reprinted in Jones, Canterbury Settlement, 231–233.
46. Butler, Luck, or Cunning?, 120.
47. Thomas Huxley, 1870, “On Descartes ‘Discourse touching the method of using one’s reason rightly and of seeking scientific truth,” reprinted in Methods and Results, vol. 1 of Essays (New York: Appleton, 1902), 191.
48. Samuel Butler, Erewhon; or, Over the Range (London: Trübner & Co., 1872; new and rev. ed., London: A. C. Fifield, 1913), 236–241 (page citations are to the revised edition).
49. Butler to Darwin, 11 May 1872, in Jones, Samuel Butler, vol. 1, 156–157.
50. Butler to Darwin, 30 May 1872, in Jones, Samuel Butler, vol. 1, 158.
51. Charles Darwin to Thomas Huxley, 4 February 1880, in Jones, Samuel Butler, vol. 2, 454.
52. Henry Festing Jones, Charles Darwin and Samuel Butler: A step towards Reconciliation (London: A.C. Fifield, 1911); reprinted as an appendix to Barlow, Autobiography of Charles Darwin, 174–196.
53. Review of Samuel Butler’s Evolution, Old and New, Saturday Review (London) 47, no. 1, 231 (31 May 1879): 682.
54. Butler, Unconscious Memory, 53, 56.
55. Samuel Butler to Thomas Gale Butler, 18 February 1876, in H. F. Jones, ed., The Notebooks of Samuel Butler (London: A.C. Fifield, 1912); reprinted as vol. 20 of The Shrewsbury Edition of the Works of Samuel Butler (London: Jonathan Cape, 1926), 48.
56. Butler, Luck, or Cunning?, 1.
57. Butler, Unconscious Memory, 13, 15.
58. Ibid., 13.
59. Freeman J. Dyson, Origins of Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 8–9.
60. Freeman J. Dyson, “A Model for the Origin of Life,” Journal of Molecular Evolution 18 (1982): 344.
61. Freeman J. Dyson, Collected Scientific Papers with Commentary (Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, 1996), 47.
62. Dyson, Origins of Life, 5.
63. Butler, “Mechanical Creation,” 233.
64. Butler, Erewhon, 252–255.
65. Thomas Huxley, 1887, “The Progress of Science,” reprinted in Methods and Results, 117.
66. Dyson, Origins of Life, 7.
67. Samuel Butler, “From our Mad Correspondent,” Canterbury Press, 15 September 1863; reprinted in Joseph Jones, The Cradle of Erewhon: Samuel Butler in New Zealand (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1959), 196–197.
68. Samuel Butler, “Lucubratio Ebria,” Canterbury Press, 29 July 1865; reprinted in Jones, Notebooks of Samuel Butler, 40.
69. Butler, Unconscious Memory, 57.
CHAPTER 3
1. Charles Babbage, The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise: A Fragment, 2d ed. (London: John Murray, 1838), 33.
2. Leibniz to Hobbes, 13/23 July 1670, in Noel Malcolm, ed., The Correspondence of Thomas Hobbes, vol. 2 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 720.
3. Olaf Stapledon, “Interplanetary Man,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 7, no. 6 (7 November 1948): 231.
4. E. T. Bell, Men of Mathematics (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1937), 120, 122.
5. Leibniz to Henry Oldenburg, 18 December 1675, in H. W. Turnbull, ed., The Correspondence of Isaac Newton, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959), 401.
6. Leibniz to Nicolas Remond, 10 January 1714, in Leroy E. Loemker, trans, and ed., Philosophical Papers and Letters, vol. 2 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), 1063.
7. Leibniz, 1685, “Machina arithmetica in qua non additio tantum et subtractio sed et multiplicatio nullo, divisio vero pæne nullo animi labore peragantur,” translated as “Leibniz on his Calculating Machine,” in D. E. Smith, ed., A Source Book in Mathematics, vol. 1 (New York: Dover, 1929), 180.
8. Leibniz, letter, n.d., quoted in H. W. Buxton, 1871, Memoir of the Life and Labours of the Late Charles Babbage Esq. F.R.S. (MS, 1871), Charles Babbage Institute Reprint Series for the History of Computing, vol. 13 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988), 51, 381.
9. Leibniz, 1685, in Smith, Source Book, vol. 1, 180–181.
10. Leibniz, 1716, in Henry Rosemont, Jr., and Daniel J. Cook, trans, and eds., Discourse on the Natural Theology of the Chinese (translation of “Lettre sur la philosophie chinoise à Nicolas de Remond”), Monograph of the Society for Asian and Comparative Philosophy, no. 4 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1977), 158.
11. Leibniz, “De Progressione Dyadica—Pars I,” (MS, 15 March 1679), published in facsimile (with German translation) in Erich Hochstetter and Hermann-Josef Greve, eds., Herrn von Leibniz’ Rechnung mit Null und Eins (Berlin: Siemens Aktiengesellschaft, 1966), 46–47. (English translation by Verena Huber-Dyson, 1995.)
12. Leibniz, ca. 1679, in Loemker, Philosophical Papers, vol. 1, 342.
13. Ibid., 344.
14. Leibniz, supplement to a letter to Christiaan Huygens, 8 September 1679, in Loemker, Philosophical Papers, vol. 1, 384–385.
15. Charles Babbage, Passages from the Life of a Philosopher (London: Longman, Green, 1864), 142. Facsimile reprint, New York: A. M. Kelley, 1969.
16. Buxton, Babbage, 158.
17. Ibid., 155.
18. Leibniz, 1710, “Reflexions on the Work that Mr. Hobbes Published in English on ‘Freedom, Necessity and Chance,’” in E. M. Huggard, trans., and Austin Farrer, ed., Theodicy: Essays on the Goodness of God the Freedom of Man and the Origin of Evil, (La Salle, Ill.: Open Court, 1951), 393.
19. Babbage, Passages, 42.
20. Buxton, Babbage, 46.
21. Babbage, Passages, 118–119.
22. Doron D. Swade, “Redeeming Charles Babbage’s Mechanical Computer,” Scientific American 268, no. 2 (February 1993): 86.
23. Charles Darwin, 1876, in Nora Barlow, ed., The Autobiography of Charles Darwin, 1809–1882: with Original Omissions Restored, edited with Appendix and Notes by his Grand-daughter (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1958), 108. This reference to Babbage, and accompanying comments on Herbert Spencer, were deleted from the version published by Francis Darwin in 1896.
24. Ada Augusta Lovelace, Note A to L. F. Menabrea’s “Sketch of the Analytical Engine invented by Charles Babbage, Esq.,” Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, vol. 3 (London: J. E. & R. Taylor, 1843), reprinted in Henry Provost Babbage, ed., Babbage’s Calculating Engines: Being a Collection of Papers Relating to them; their History, and Construction (London: E. and F. Spon, 1889), 25. Facsimile reprint, Charles Babbage Institute Reprint Series for the History of Computing, vol. 2 (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982).
25. Babbage, Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, 97.
26. Ibid., vii.
27. Charles Babbage, On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures, 4th ed., enlarged (London: Charles Kni
ght, 1835), 273–276.
28. Babbage, Passages, 128.
29. George Boole, An Investigation of the Laws of Thought, on which are founded the mathematical theories of Logic and Probabilities (London: Macmillan, 1854), 1.
30. Herman Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1972), 153.
31. John von Neumann, “Probabilistic Logics and the Synthesis of Reliable Organisms from Unreliable Components,” in Claude E. Shannon and John McCarthy, eds., Automata Studies (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1956), 43–99.
32. Boole, Laws of Thought, 21.
33. Ibid., 408.
34. Leibniz, ca. 1702, “Reflections on the Common Concept of Justice,” in Loemker, Philosophical Papers, vol. 2, 919.
35. D’arcy Power, in Dictionary of National Biography, vol. 18 (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1898), 399.
36. Alfred Smee, Principles of the Human Mind deduced from Physical Laws (London: Longman, Brown, Green, & Longmans, 1849); reprinted in Elizabeth Mary (Smee) Odling, Memoir of the late Alfred Smee, F. R. S., by his daughter; with a selection from his miscellaneous writings (London: George Bell & Sons, 1878), 271.
37. Alfred Smee, The Process of Thought Adapted to Words and Language, together with a description of the Relational and Differential Machines (London: Longman, Brown, Green, & Longmans, 1851), ix.
38. Ibid., 2.
39. Ibid., 25.
40. Ibid., 39.
41. Ibid., 42–43.
42. Ibid., 48–49.
43. Ibid., 49–50.
44. Alfred Smee, Instinct and Reason: Deduced from Electro-Biology (London: Reeve, Benham & Reeve, 1850), 97.
45. Alfred Smee, Elements of Electro-Biology; or, the Voltaic Mechanism of Man; of Electro-Pathology, Especially of the Nervous System; and of Electro-Therapeutics (London: Reeve, Benham & Reeve, 1849), 20.
46. Smee, Instinct and Reason, 28–29.
47. Ibid., 200, 221.
48. Saturday Review (London), 10 August 1872, 194.
49. Power, Dictionary, vol. 18, 399.
50. Kurt Gödel, “Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme I,” Monatshefte für Mathematik und Physik 38 (1931); translated by Elliott Mendelson as “On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems I,” in Martin Davis, ed., The Undecidable (Hewlett, N.Y.: Raven Press, 1965), 5.
51. Leibniz to Clarke, 18 August 1716, in H. G. Alexander, ed., The Leibniz–Clarke Correspondence (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1956), 193.
52. Leibniz, 1714, The Monadology, in George R. Montgomery, trans., Basic Writings: Discourse on Metaphysics; Correspondence with Arnauld; Monadology (La Salle, Ill.: Open Court, 1902), 254.
53. Leibniz to Caroline, Princess of Wales, ca. 1716, in Alexander, Correspondence, 191.
CHAPTER 4
1. Alan Turing, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence,” Mind 59 (October 1950): 443.
2. A. K. Dewdney, The Turing Omnibus (Rockville, Md.: Computer Science Press, 1989), 389.
3. Robin Gandy, “The Confluence of Ideas in 1936,” in Rolf Herken, ed., The Universal Turing Machine: A Half-century Survey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 85.
4. Alan Turing, “On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem,” Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 2d ser. 42 (1936–1937); reprinted, with corrections, in Martin Davis, ed., The Undecidable (Hewlett, N.Y.: Raven Press, 1965), 117.
5. Ibid., 136.
6. Kurt Gödel, 1946, “Remarks Before the Princeton Bicentennial Conference on Problems in Mathematics,” reprinted in Davis, The Undecidable, 84.
7. W. Daniel Hillis, The Difference That Makes a Difference (New York: Basic Books, forthcoming).
8. Malcolm MacPhail to Andrew Hodges, 17 December 1977, in Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing: The Enigma (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983), 138.
9. Allan Marquand, “A New Logical Machine,” Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 21 (1885): 303.
10. Charles Peirce to Allan Marquand, 1866, in Arthur W. Burks, “Logic, Computers, and Men,” Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association 46 (1973): 47–48.
11. Wolfe Mays, “The First Circuit of an Electrical Logic-Machine,” Science 118 (4 September 1953): 281.
12. George W. Patterson, “The First Electric Computer, a Magnetological Analysis,” Journal of the Franklin Institute 270 (1960): 130.
13. Charles S. Peirce, “Logical Machines,” American Journal of Psychology 1 (November 1887): 165.
14. Ibid., 170.
15. Ibid., 168.
16. Ibid., 169.
17. Theodosia Talcott to H. Talcott, 6 January 1889, in Geoffrey D. Austrian, Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 39–40.
18. Emmanuel Scheyer, “When Perforated Paper Goes to Work: How Strips of Paper Can Endow Inanimate Machines with Brains of Their Own,” Scientific American 127 (December 1922): 395.
19. Vannevar Bush, “Instrumental Analysis,” Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 42 (October 1936): 652.
20. John W. Tukey, 9 January 1947, “Sequential Conversion of Continuous Data to Digital Data,” in Henry S. Tropp, “Origin of the Term Bit,” Annals of the History of Computing 6, no. 2 (April 1984): 153–154.
21. Claude E. Shannon, “A Mathematical Theory of Communication,” Bell System Technical Journal 27 (July and October 1948): 379–423, 623–656.
22. Bush, “Instrumental Analysis,” 653–654.
23. Irving J. Good, “Pioneering Work on Computers at Bletchley,” in Nicholas Metropolis, J. Howlett, and Gian-Carlo Rota, eds., A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980), 35.
24. Peter Hilton, “Reminiscences of Bletchley Park, 1942–1945,” in A Century of Mathematics in America, part 1 (Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, 1988), 293–294.
25. Diana Payne, “The Bombes,” in F. H. Hinsley and Alan Stripp, eds., Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 134.
26. Thomas H. Flowers, “The Design of Colossus,” Annals of the History of Computing 5 (1983): 244.
27. Irving J. Good, “A Report on a Lecture by Tom Flowers on the Design of the Colossus,” Annals of the History of Computing 4, no. 1 (1982): 57–58.
28. Howard Campaigne, introduction to Flowers, “Design of Colossus,” 239.
29. Irving J. Good, “Enigma and Fish,” revised, with corrections, in F. H. Hinsley and Alan Stripp, eds., Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park, 2d ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 164.
30. Hodges, Turing, 278.
31. Irving J. Good, “Turing and the Computer,” review of Alan Turing: The Enigma, by Andrew Hodges, Nature 307 (1 February 1984): 663.
32. Brian Randell, “The Colossus,” in Metropolis, Howlett, and Rota, History of Computing, 78.
33. Hilton, “Reminiscences,” 293.
34. Alan Turing, “Proposal for the Development in the Mathematics Division of an Automatic Computing Engine (ACE),” reprinted in B. E. Carpenter and R. W. Doran, eds., A. M. Turing’s A.C.E. Report of 1946 and Other Papers, Charles Babbage Reprint Series for the History of Computing, vol. 10 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1986), 20–105.
35. Hodges, Turing, 307.
36. Carpenter and Doran, Turing’s A.C.E. Report, 2.
37. Sara Turing, Alan M. Turing (Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons, 1959), 78.
38. M. H. A. Newman, quoted in Good, “Turing and the Computer,” 663.
39. Alan Turing, “Lecture to the London Mathematical Society on 20 February 1947,” in Carpenter and Doran, Turing’s A.C.E. Report, 112.
40. Ibid., 106.
41. J. H. Wilkinson, “Turing’s Work at the National Physical Laboratory,” in Metropolis, Howlett, and Rota, History of Computing, 111.
42. Alan Turing
, “Intelligent Machinery,” report submitted to the National Physical Laboratory, 1948, in Donald Michie, ed., Machine Intelligence, vol. 5 (1970), 3.
43. Turing, “Lecture,” 124.
44. Turing, “Intelligent Machinery,” 4.
45. Turing, “Lecture,” 123.
46. Turing, “Intelligent Machinery,” 9.
47. Ibid., 23.
48. Turing, “Computing Machinery,” 456.
49. Turing, “Intelligent Machinery,” 21–22.
50. Turing, “Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals,” Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 2d ser. 45 (1939); reprinted in Davis, The Undecidable, 209.
51. John von Neumann, 1948, “The General and Logical Theory of Automata,” in Lloyd A. Jeffress, ed., Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior: The Hixon Symposium (New York: Hafner, 1951), 26.
52. Leibniz, 1714, The Monadology, in George R. Montgomery, trans., Basic Writings: Discourse on Metaphysics; Correspondence with Arnauld; Monadology (La Salle, Ill.: Open Court, 1902), 253.
CHAPTER 5
1. John von Neumann to Gleb Wataghin, ca. 1946, as reported by Freeman J. Dyson, Disturbing the Universe (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 194.
2. Stanislaw Ulam, Adventures of a Mathematician (New York: Scribner’s, 1976), 231.
3. Nicholas Vonneumann, “John von Neumann: Formative Years,” Annals of the History of Computing 11, no. 3 (1989): 172.
4. Eugene P. Wigner, “John von Neumann—A Case Study of Scientific Creativity,” Annals of the History of Computing. 11, no. 3 (1989): 168.
5. Edward Teller, in Jean R. Brink and Roland Haden, “Interviews with Edward Teller and Eugene P. Wigner,” Annals of the History of Computing 11, no. 3 (1989): 177.
6. Stanislaw Ulam, “John von Neumann, 1903–1957,” Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 64, no. 3 (May 1958): 1.
7. Eugene Wigner, “Two Kinds of Reality,” The Monnist 49, no. 2 (April 1964); reprinted in Symmetries and Reflections (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967), 198.
8. John von Neumann, statement on nomination to membership in the AEC, 8 March 1955, von Neumann Papers, Library of Congress; in William Aspray, John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990), 247.
9. John von Neumann, as quoted by J. Robert Oppenheimer in testimony before the AEC Personnel Security Board, 16 April 1954, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1954; reprint, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1970), 246 (page citation is to the reprint edition).
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