10. Nicholas Metropolis, “The MANIAC,” in Nicholas Metropolis, J. Howlett, and Gian-Carlo Rota, eds., A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980), 459.
11. John von Neumann, testimony before the AEC Personnel Security Board, 27 April 1954, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, 655.
12. Ralph Slutz, interview by Christopher Evans, June 1976, OH 086, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
13. John von Neumann, “The Role of Mathematics in the Sciences and Society,” address to Princeton graduate alumni, June 1954; reprinted in John von Neumann, Theory of Games, Astrophysics, Hydrodynamics and Meteorology, vol. 6 of Collected Works (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1963), 478, 490.
14. Galileo Galilei, Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences (Leyden: Elzevir, 1638), 275; trans. Henry Crew and Alfonso De Salvio (New York: Macmillan, 1914; reprint, Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1946), 242 (page citation is to the reprint edition).
15. Ibid., 246.
16. Herman Goldstine, 16 August 1944, in The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1972), 166.
17. William H. Calvin, “A Stone’s Throw and Its Launch Window: Timing Precision and Its Implications for Language and Hominid Brains,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 104 (September 1983): 121.
18. Robert Oppenheimer to James Conant, October 1949, AEC Records; in James R. Shepley and Clay Blair, The Hydrogen Bomb (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1954), 70.
19. Willis H. Ware, The History and Development of the Electronic Computer Project at the Institute for Advanced Study, RAND Corporation Memorandum P-377, 10 March 1953, 5–6.
20. Martin Schwarzschild, interview by William Aspray, 18 November 1986, OH 124, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
21. Richard Feynman, “Los Alamos from Below—Reminiscences of 1943–1945,” Engineering and Science 39, no. 2 (January–February 1976): 25.
22. Osborne Reynolds, “An Experimental Investigation of the Circumstances which determine whether the Motion of Water shall be direct or sinuous, and the Laws of Resistance in parallel Channels,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 174 (1883): 936.
23. Ibid., 938.
24. Stanislaw Ulam, “Von Neumann: The Interaction of Mathematics and Computing,” in Metropolis, Howlett, and Rota, History of Computing, 93.
25. Norbert Wiener, I Am a Mathematician (New York: Doubleday, 1956), 260.
26. Lewis Fry Richardson, Weather Prediction by Numerical Process (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922; fascimile reprint, New York: Dover Publications, 1965), xiii.
27. Ibid., xi.
28. W. Daniel Hillis, “Richard Feynman and the Connection Machine,” Physics Today 42, no. 2 (1989): 78.
29. Lewis Fry Richardson, Arms and Insecurity: A Mathematical Investigation into the Causes of War, ed. Quincy Wright and C. C. Lienau (Pittsburgh: The Boxwood Press, 1960); Statistics of Deadly Quarrels, ed. Quincy Wright and C. C. Lienau (Pittsburgh: The Boxwood Press, 1960).
30. Lewis Fry Richardson, “The Analogy Between Mental Images and Sparks,” Psychological Review 37, no. 3 (May 1930): 222.
31. Sidney Shalett, “Electronics to Aid Weather Figuring,” New York Times, 11 January 1946, 12.
32. Stanislaw Ulam, Science, Computers and People: From the Tree of Mathematics (Boston: Birkhauser, 1986), 164.
33. Shalett, “Electronics,” 12.
34. Stan Frankel, letter to Brian Randell, 1972, in Brian Randell, “On Alan Turing and the Origins of Digital Computers,” Machine Intelligence 7 (1972): 10.
35. Rudolf Ortvay to John von Neumann, Budapest, 29 January 1941, in Denes Nagy, ed., “The von Neumann–Ortvay Connection,” Annals of the History of Computing 11, no. 3 (1989): 187.
36. Warren S. McCulloch and Walter Pitts, “A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity,” Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics 5 (1943): 115–133.
37. John von Neumann, n.d., Library of Congress, summarized in Aspray, von Neumann, 271.
38. Herman H. Goldstine, interview by Nancy Stern, 11 August 1980, OH 018, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
39. Metropolis, Howlett, and Rota, History of Computing, xvii.
CHAPTER 6
1. Arthur Burks, Herman Goldstine, and John von Neumann, 1946, Preliminary Discussion of the Logical Design of an Electronic Computing Instrument (Princeton, N.J.: Institute for Advanced Study, 28 June 1946; 2d ed., September 1947); reprinted in John von Neumann, Design of Computers, Theory of Automata and Numerical Analysis, vol. 5 of Collected Works, ed. Abraham Taub (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1963), 79.
2. Harry Woolf, ed., A Community of Scholars: The Institute for Advanced Study Faculty and Members, 1930–1980 (Princeton, N.J.: Institute for Advanced Study, 1980), ix.
3. Ibid., 130.
4. Abraham Flexner, I Remember (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1940), 13.
5. Abraham Flexner, “The Usefulness of Useless Knowledge,” Harper’s Magazine, October 1939, 548.
6. Flexner, I Remember, 75.
7. Ibid., 356.
8. Flexner, “Useless Knowledge,” 551.
9. Flexner, I Remember, 361, 375.
10. Flexner, “Useless Knowledge,” 551.
11. Ibid., 552.
12. Flexner, I Remember, 375.
13. Ibid., 377–378.
14. Flexner, “Useless Knowledge,” 551.
15. Ibid., 551.
16. Flexner, I Remember, 375.
17. Arthur W. Burks, interview by William Aspray, 20 June 1987, OH 136, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
18. Willis H. Ware, interview by Nancy Stern, 19 January 1981, OH 37, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
19. John von Neumann, “Governed,” review of Cybernetics, by Norbert Wiener, Physics Today 2 (1949): 33.
20. Willis H. Ware, The History and Development of the Electronic Computer Project at the Institute for Advanced Study, RAND Corporation Memorandum P-377, 10 March 1953, 7–8.
21. Burks, interview.
22. John von Neumann, “Memorandum on the Program of the High-Speed Computer,” 8 November 1945, quoted in Herman Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1972), 255.
23. Irving J. Good, “Some Future Social Repercussions of Computers,” International Journal of Environmental Studies 1 (1970): 69.
24. Burks, interview.
25. Ralph Slutz, interview by Christopher Evans, June 1976, OH 86, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
26. Ware, interview.
27. Herman H. Goldstine, interview by Nancy Stern, 11 August 1980, OH 18, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
28. Norbert Wiener, I Am a Mathematician (New York: Doubleday, 1956), 242–243.
29. Julian Bigelow, Arturo Rosenblueth, and Norbert Wiener, “Behavior, Purpose and Teleology,” Philosophy of Science 10, no. 1 (1943): 22.
30. Warren S. McCulloch, “The Imitation of One Form of Life by Another—Biomimesis,” in Eugene E. Bernard and Morley R. Kare, eds., Biological Prototypes and Synthetic Systems, Proceedings of the Second Annual Bionics Symposium sponsored by Cornell University and the General Electric Company, Advanced Electronics Center, held at Cornell University, August 30–September 1, 1961, vol. 1 (New York: Plenum Press, 1962), 393.
31. Ware, interview.
32. Ibid.
33. Julian Bigelow, “Computer Development at the Institute for Advanced Study,” in Nicholas Metropolis, J. Howlett, and Gian-Carlo Rota, eds., A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980), 291.
34. Ware, interview.
35. Burks, interview.
36. Bigelow, “Computer Development,” 304.
37. Ibid., 307.
38. Ibid., 297.
39.
Ibid., 308.
40. Ibid., 306.
41. William F. Gunning, Rand’s Digital Computer Effort, Rand Corporation Memorandum P-363, 23 February 1953, 4.
42. Richard W. Hamming, “The History of Computing in the United States,” in Dalton Tarwater, ed., The Bicentennial Tribute to American Mathematics, 1776–1976 (Washington, D.C.: Mathematical Association of America, 1977), 119.
43. Martin Schwarzschild, interview by William Aspray, 18 November 1986, OH 124, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
44. Edmund C. Berkeley, Giant Brains (New York: John Wiley, 1949), 5.
45. John von Neumann, 1948, “The General and Logical Theory of Automata,” in Lloyd A. Jeffress, ed., Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior: The Hixon Symposium (New York: Hafner, 1951), 31.
46. Stanislaw Ulam, Adventures of a Mathematician (New York: Scribner’s, 1976), 242.
47. John von Neumann, 1948, response to W. S. McCulloch’s paper “Why the Mind Is in the Head,” Hixon Symposium, September 1948, in Jeffress, Cerebral Mechanisms, 109–111.
48. John von Neumann to Oswald Veblen, memorandum, 26 March 1945, “On the Use of Variational Methods in Hydrodynamics,” reprinted in John von Neumann, Theory of Games, Astrophysics, Hydrodynamics and Meteorology, vol. 6 of Collected Works, ed. Abraham Taub (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1963), 357.
CHAPTER 7
1. Marvin Minsky, 1971, in Carl Sagan, ed., Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence, Proceedings of the Conference held at the Byurakan Astrophysical Observatory, Yerevan, USSR, 5–11 September 1971 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1973), 328.
2. Julian Bigelow, “Computer Development at the Institute for Advanced Study,” in Nicholas Metropolis, J. Howlett, and Gian-Carlo Rota, eds., A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980), 308.
3. Konstantin S. Merezhkovsky, Theory of Two Plasms as the Basis of Symbiogenesis: A New Study on the Origin of Organisms (in Russian) (Kazan: Publishing Office of the Imperial Kazan University, 1909); Boris M. Kozo-Polyansky, A New Principle of Biology: Essay on the Theory of Symbiogenesis (in Russian) (Moscow, 1924). The theory is most accessible in English in Liya N. Khakhina’s Concepts of Symbiogenesis: A Historical and Critical Study of the Research of Russian Botanists, trans. Stephanie Merkel, ed. Lynn Margulis and Mark McMenamin (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992).
4. Merezhkovsky, Theory of Two Plasms, 8; after Khakina, Symbiogenesis, ii.
5. Edmund B. Wilson, The Cell in Development and Heredity, 3d ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1925), 738.
6. Nils A. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,” Acta Biotheoretica 16 (1962): 94.
7. Nils A. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 2,” Acta Biotheoretica 16 (1962): 122.
8. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,” 70.
9. James Pomerene, interview by Nancy Stern, 26 September 1980, OH 31, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
10. Nils A. Barricelli, “Symbiogenetic Evolution Processes Realized by Artificial Methods,” Methodos 9, nos. 35–36 (1957): 152.
11. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,” 72.
12. Barricelli, “Symbiogenetic Evolution Processes,” 169.
13. Ibid., 164.
14. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,” 70.
15. Ibid., 76.
16. Nils A. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories,” Journal of Statistical Computation and Simulation 1 (1972): 123–124.
17. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,” 94.
18. Barricelli, “Symbiogenetic Evolution Processes,” 159.
19. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,” 89.
20. Ibid., 69, 99.
21. Ibid., 94.
22. Ibid., 73.
23. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 2,” 100.
24. Ibid., 116.
25. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,” 122.
26. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 2,” 100.
27. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,” 126.
28. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 2,” 117.
29. A. G. Cairns-Smith, Seven Clues to the Origin of Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 106.
30. Tor Gulliksen, personal communication, 22 November 1995.
31. Ibid.
32. Simen Gaure, personal communication, 23 November 1995.
33. Nils Barricelli, in Paul S. Moorhead and Martin M. Kaplan, eds., Mathematical Challenges to the Neo-Darwinian Interpretation of Evolution, A Symposium Held at the Wistar Institute, April 25–26, 1966 (Philadelphia: Wistar Institute, 1967), 64.
34. Gaure, personal communication.
35. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 2,” 101.
36. John Backus, “Programming in America in the 1950s—Some Personal Impressions,” in Metropolis, Howlett, and Rota, History of Computing, 127.
37. Data in this paragraph are from Montgomery Phister, Jr., Data Processing Technology and Economics, 2d ed. (Bedford, Mass.: Digital Press, 1979), 19, 26, 27, 215, 277, 531, 611.
38. Nils A. Barricelli, “The Functioning of Intelligence Mechanisms Directing Biologic Evolution,” Theoretic Papers 3, no. 7 (1985): 126.
39. Maurice Wilkes, Memories of a Computer Pioneer (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985), 145.
40. Barricelli, “Symbiogenetic Evolution Processes,” 147.
41. Thomas Ray, “Evolution, Complexity, Entropy, and Artificial Reality,” preprint submitted to Physica D (20 August 1993): 2.
42. Thomas Ray, “How I Created Life in a Virtual Universe” (unpublished preprint, School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Delaware, 29 March 1992), 5–6.
43. Ibid., 6.
44. Thomas Ray, “An Evolutionary Approach to Synthetic Biology: Zen and the Art of Creating Life,” preprint submitted to Artificial Life 1, no. 1 (21 October 1993): 5.
45. Thomas Ray, “A Proposal to Create a Network-Wide Biodiversity Reserve for Digital Organisms,” preprint, ATR Human Information Processing Research Laboratories, Kyoto, Japan (2 March 1994), 2.
46. Thomas Ray and Kurt Thearling, “Evolving Multi-cellular Artificial Life,” preprint submitted to Proceedings of Artificial Life IV (July 1994): 6.
47. Ray, “Proposal,” 6.
48. Ibid., 5–6.
49. Ray, “Synthetic Biology,” 29.
50. Thomas Ray, “Security,” unpublished memo, 1 August 1995.
51. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories,” 126.
52. Nils Barricelli, “Genetic Language, Its Origins and Evolution,” Theoretic Papers 4, no. 6 (1986): 106–107.
53. Nils A. Barricelli, “On the Origin and Evolution of the Genetic Code: 2. Origin of the Genetic Code as a Primordial Collector Language; The Pairing-Release Hypothesis,” BioSystems 11 (1979): 19, 21.
54. Martin Davis, “Influences of Mathematical Logic on Computer Science,” in Rolf Herken, ed., The Universal Turing Machine: A Half-century Survey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 315.
55. Alan Turing, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence,” Mind 59 (October 1950): 456.
CHAPTER 8
1. W. Daniel Hillis, “New Computer Architectures and Their Relationship to Physics, or Why Computer Science Is No Good,” International Journal of Theoretical Physics 21, nos. 3–4 (April 1982): 257.
2. Aeschylus, Agamemnon, lines 280–316, trans, and ed. Eduard Frankel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950), 109–111.
3. Polybius, The Histories, book 10, 45.6–12, trans. W. R. Paton (London: William Heinemann, 1925), 213–214.
4. John Wilkins, Mercury; or, the Secret and Swift messenger: Shewing, How a Man may with Privacy and Speed communicate his Thou
ghts to a friend at any distance (London: John Maynard, 1641), 88.
5. Ibid., 137.
6. Gerald J. Holzmann and Björn Pehrson, The Early History of Data Networks (Los Alamitos, Calif.: IEEE Computer Society Press, 1995), 24.
7. Robert Hooke, 21 May 1684, “Discourse Shewing a Way how to communicate one’s Mind at great Distances,” in W. Derham, ed., Philosophical Experiments and Observations of the late Eminent Dr. Robert Hooke (London: W. Derham, 1726), 142–143.
8. Richard Waller, “The Life of Dr. Robert Hooke,” introduction to The Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke, containing his Cutlerian lectures, and other discourses (London: Richard Waller, 1705), xxvii.
9. John Aubrey, in Aubrey’s Brief Lives: Edited from the Original Manuscripts with a Life of John Aubrey by Oliver Lawson Dick (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1949), 165.
10. Samuel Pepys, 15 February 1664, in Diary and Correspondence of Samuel Pepys, F.R.S. . . . Deciphered by Rev. J. Smith, A. M. from the original shorthand MS, vol. 2 (Philadelphia: John D. Morris, 1890), 211.
11. Waller, “Hooke,” ix.
12. Ibid., xiii.
13. Robert Hooke, 7 May 1673, in R T. Gunther, Early Science in Oxford, vol. 7 (Oxford: printed for the author, 1930), 412.
14. Waller, “Hooke,” vii.
15. Aubrey, Brief Lives, 167.
16. Letter from Hooke to Boyle, 3 July 1663, in Gunther, Early Science, vol. 6, 139.
17. Hooke, Posthumous Works, 140.
18. Ibid., 144.
19. Journal of the Royal Society, 17 February 1664; in Gunther, Early Science, vol. 6, 170.
20. Journal of the Royal Society, 29 February 1672; in Gunther, Early Science, vol. 7, 394.
21. Journal of the Royal Society, 7 March 1672; in Gunther, Early Science, vol. 7, 394.
22. Hooke, “Discourse,” 147.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid., 146–147.
25. Holzmann and Pehrson, Data Networks, 38.
26. Hooke, “Discourse,” 148.
27. Gerald J. Holzmann and Björn Pehrson, “The First Data Networks,” Scientific American 270, no. 1 (January 1994): 129.
28. Abbé Jean Antoine Nollet, Essai sur l’électricité des corps (Paris: Frères Guerin, 1746), 135; second quotation in Park Benjamin, A History of Electricity (The Intellectual rise in electricity) from antiquity to the days of Benjamin Franklin (New York: John Wiley, 1898), 534.
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