Darwin Among the Machines
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Calvin, William H., 81–82, 159, 218–19
Cambrian (metazoan) explosion, 21, 122, 160
Cambridge University, 15, 39, 41, 54, 69, 124, 132, 198
Campaigne, Howard, 65
Can machines think? 7, 35, 41, 47, 50, 59, 108, 210
Canterbury (New Zealand) Press, 24, 32, 34
Canterbury Settlement (New Zealand), 15, 16, 24, 32
Caroline, Princess of Wales (1683–1737), 51
Catching of the leviathan, The (Bramhall), 4
cathode-ray tube (CRT), 104–105
Cavendish, Henry (1731–1810), 139
celestial mechanics, 93, 135
cells, eukaryotic 12, 112
Census, U.S., 60
cerebral meteorology (Wiener), 86
Cerebral Symphony, The (Calvin), 159
chad, 61
Chambers, Robert (1802–1871), 17, 27, 190
Chappe, Abraham (1773–1849), 138
Chappe, Claude (1763–1805), 138–39
Charles II, king of England (1630–1685), 4, 161, 163–64
Charney, Jule (1917–1981), 88, 107
chemistry, 12, 113, 117, 125, 174, 202
chess, 63, 75, 119
Chicago, University of, 98
chicken
as egg’s way of making another egg, 28
evolutionary success of, 153
Childhood’s End (Clarke, 1953), 224
children, and language, 226
Christchurch (New Zealand), 16, 17, 32
chronometers, 134–35, 136, 189
Church, Alonzo, 55, 57, 58, 72, 88
circuits, biochemical, 191
circulation, of currency, 160, 164, 167
civil war (English), 3, 160
Clarke, Arthur C., 224
Clarke, Samuel (1675–1729), 51
clay, and origins of life, 202
Clytaemnestra, 131–32
coalitions. see also symbiogenesis
in biology, 12, 112, 171–72
and evolution, 114, 117, 129, 171–72, 185
in game theory and economics, 154–155, 158, 171
code and coding. see also Baudot code; Morse code
binary, 37, 44, 64, 66, 132–33, 143, 189, 224
in biology, 8, 13, 27, 123–24, 128, 156, 158, 190, 225
and cryptography, 62–67, 165–67
and digital computers, 10, 40, 57, 83, 90, 99, 102, 104, 106–107, 114, 121–24, 133, 189, 202, 214–16, 224
and economics, 158–159, 163, 165–67, 169
and evolution of meaning, 8, 130, 133, 225
and formal systems, 37–39, 46–47, 49–50, 129–30, 190
genetic, 115, 117–18, 123–24, 129, 160, 189, 202, 217, 225
pulse-frequency, 156, 166, 169, 225
self-replicating, 13, 30, 32, 120, 122–23, 125, 127–29, 189, 202, 215, 225
and telecommunications, 33, 132–33, 137–39, 142–44, 150–51, 166–67
and Turing machine, 9, 55–57, 130, 139, 216
coevolution, 126, 203
coincidence, and evolution, 124, 189
cold war, 75, 76, 147
Coleridge, Samuel 23
Collbohm, Frank, 147
collective intelligence, 7–11, 13, 34, 72, 124, 168, 172, 197, 199–200, 204–205, 208–210, 214, 224
and collective stupidity, 11
and evolution, 115–16, 124, 186–90, 228
human society as, 2–3, 13, 190–91
Colossus (cryptanalytical machine), 9–10, 12, 65–67, 69, 72, 104, 144
as ancestor of the modern computer, 10, 67
programming of, 66–67, 205
secrecy of, 67, 90
Com21, Inc., 207
communication. see also code and coding; telecommunication
biochemical, 123, 169
digital, proliferation of, 7–9, 10, 12
and emergent mind, 110, 203–205, 210
human-computer, 183, 225–26
mathematical theory of, 61, 155
money, as a means of, 164–69
communism, 77, 184, 199
Complaît Strategyst, The (Williams), 155
complex adaptive systems. See self-organizing systems
complexity
Cambrian surge of, 21, 122, 160
computational, 11, 39, 56, 85, 89–90, 110, 130, 157
and computer systems, 61, 177, 121, 189, 203
and cryptography, 62, 63, 66
of data networks, 11, 150, 205
and evolution, 13, 112, 115, 117, 119, 126, 129–30, 190
and game theory, 154–55, 158
hierarchical distribution of, 192
and intelligence, 9, 12, 110, 126, 186, 197, 205
and mathematical logic, 37, 130, 190
and neural networks, 89, 157–58, 176
“new” science of, 3, 9, 18, 28, 175
and origins of life, 28, 117, 177
and SAGE air defense system, 178–81
and self-organizing systems, 175–77, 187, 190
and self-reproduction, 71, 109
of software, 89, 121, 124, 130
computability. see also incompleteness; Turing machine
equivalent definitions of, 54, 57
and mind, 5–7, 36, 39, 43, 50, 58, 59, 70–73, 157
and neural networks, 88, 157
computable numbers. See “On Computable Numbers”; functions; recursive functions
computation. see also computability
in biology, 71, 108, 115, 216
and economic systems, 168
evolutionary, 71, 184–85, 189
Hobbes, on nature of, 6–7
massively parallel, 86–88, 108, 115, 126–27, 155, 196–97, 181, 205
neural, 46, 82, 89, 108, 156–58, 169, 219
quantum, 72
reliable, using unreliable components, 44–45, 72, 108, 156
Computer and the Brain, The (von Neumann), 108, 109, 156
computer architecture, 2, 9, 68, 90, 94, 99, 157, 185. see also von Neumann architecture
computer networks. see also Internet; packet switching
complexity of, 11, 126, 150, 205
and distributed intelligence, 9–13, 168, 203, 205, 208, 210, 214
origins of, 88, 143–52, 180
proliferation of, 10–13, 167, 183, 192, 203, 206
robustness of, 149, 190
computers. see also digital computers
analog, 61
human, 55, 59, 80, 83–84, 86, 197, 212
Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR), 60
Connection Machine, 86, 126, 222
conscientious objectors, in World War I, 194
consciousness. see also intelligence; artificial intelligence; mind
of animals, 77
and collective intelligence, 193, 199–200, 203–205, 209–210
defined, by Smee, 46
among machines, 26, 50–51, 210
nature and evolution of, 10, 25–26, 82, 171, 203, 211
corporations, as purposive systems, 170
Cost of a Hardened, Nationwide Buried Cable Network (RAND), 147
Cradocke, Francis, 164
Crago, Robert, 179
Crimean war, 139
cryptography and cryptanalysis. see also code and coding; Colossus; Enigma; Fish
abuse of, and government control 166
and digital telecommunications, 138, 148–49, 151
and Hooke, 137
and money, 165–67
public-key (RSA), 165–66
and Wilkins, 132–33, 166
in World War II, 9–10, 62–67, 205
culture (human), 82, 170, 184, 191, 211, 217, 225
currency, 158–60, 164–65, 167–70
Cybernetics, 6, 86, 98, 100–101, 176
and Ampère, 6, 141, 161–62
Cybernetics (Wiener), 6, 98
cyberplasm, 202
D
Darwin-Butler quarrel, 17–18, 23–24, 26–27, 186–87
Darwin, C
harles Robert (1809–1882). see also Origin of Species
on Babbage, 41
and Butler, 17–18, 23–24, 26–27, 186–87, 217
on collective organisms, 192
deleted references to “my” theory, 18
on design, 189
and Erasmus Darwin, 17, 23
and evolution, 18, 20, 116, 186, 189, 190
and Huxley, 4, 18, 115
pangenesis, hypothesis of, 20
and his predecessors, 17, 20, 154
Darwin, Erasmus (1731–1802), 17, 18–23
and Butler–Darwin quarrel, 17, 23, 27
and Charles Darwin, 17, 20, 23
and electricity, 22–23, 32
and evolution, 17, 18–20, 27, 119, 154, 191
and “fiery chariot,” 21–22
and Frankenstein, 22
on origins of life, 18–20, 119
and origins of technology, 21–22, 32, 33
as physician, 20, 21, 22–23
on sex, 19
Darwin, Francis (1848–1925), 21, 27
“Darwin Among the Machines” (Butler), 15, 24–25
“Darwin on the Origin of Species” (Butler), 24
Darwin, Sir Charles (1887–1962), 68
Darwinism, 17–20, 22–24, 27, 186
and Hobbes, 4
limits of, 31, 186–88, 190–91, 217
and symbiogenesis, 112
Davidge, Robert, 215–16
Davies, Donald, and packet switching, 150
Davis, Martin, on mathematical logic, 130
Dawkins, Richard, 27, 28
de Morgan, Augustus (1806–1871), 41
death, and evolution, 31, 186, 188, 190–91
Death into Life (Stapledon), 198
DEC system 10 (computer), 120
defense calculator (IBM model 701), 91
Defense Communications Agency, U.S., 152
demons, computational, 185
Descartes, René (1596–1650), 3–4, 25
design. see also argument from design and nature, 12, 27, 186–87, 214–15
Design for a Brain (Ashby), 176
Detection of Needles, and other Steel Instruments, impacted in the Human Frame (Smee), 46
Devenish, Fred, 221
devil, and artificial intelligence, 213
Dewdney, A. K., on computability, 54
difference engine (Babbage), 40, 41
differential analyzer, 61, 80, 81, 85
digital computers. see also computer architecture; ENIAC; EDVAC; IAS computer; IBM; memory; microprocessors; software; Turing machine
and banking, 165, 167, 170
binary, envisioned by Leibniz, 37
and the brain, 89–90, 108, 155–57
and evolution of evolution, 32, 119, 128, 216
mainframe, 167, 189, 207
and nuclear weapons, 75, 78–79, 83, 92, 111
origins and evolution, 2, 6–10, 36–44, 56–62, 66–70, 75, 80–84, 87–92, 97–107, 111, 121–24, 144, 160, 178–80, 183–84, 188–89
personal, 11, 98
proliferation of, 2, 8–13, 30–31, 61–62, 92, 109, 121–24, 184, 192, 205, 214–16, 226–28
and telecommunications, 7–12, 144, 148–52, 205–208
digital universe, 9–10, 113–17, 121–30, 215–16, 225, 228
open or closed? 53, 130, 228
dinosaurs, 174, 202
diodes, 179, 203
Discourse on method (Descartes), 25
disks, computer, 7, 8, 98, 102, 122, 209
Distant Early Warning (DEW Line) system, 146
diversity, 19, 35, 116, 128
DNA (deoxyribonucleic add), 27, 118, 121, 123, 128, 189, 217
Doctor Mirabilis (Roger Bacon), 212
Dollis Hill (U.K.), 65
DRAM (dynamic random-access memory), 8. see also random-access memory
dual origin theory
of life, 29–31, 32, 112–13
of technology, 30, 32
duality, and Boolean algebra, 44
duels, in game theory and nuclear deterrence, 146
dugout canoe, as architectural metaphor, 214
Dyar, Harrison Gray, 141
Dyson, Esther, xi-xii
Dyson, Freeman J., xi
on George Dyson (father), 222
on Institute for Advanced Study, 97, 102
on origins of life, 28–30, 32
Dyson, George (1883–1964), 219–22
E
Early History of Data Networks (Holzmann and Pehrson), 133
Eckert, John Presper, 81, 82, 90–91, 98
Eckert-Mauchly Computer Company, 90–91, 147
ecology, 13, 175, 187
computational, 122, 185, 187, 189, 207, 226
economy and economics, 153, 158–71
electronic, magnitude of, 167
and game theory, 154–56, 168
and intelligence, 109, 153, 156, 158–59, 167–69, 171
and meaning, 8, 156, 158–59, 165, 167–69, 171
and von Neumann, 76, 153, 155
ecosystems, intelligence of, 186
Edelcrantz, Abraham (1754–1821), 139
EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator), 124
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), 90–91, 98
EDVAC report, 90, 99, 104
effective calculability, 54–55, 57
Einstein, Albert (1879–1955), 94, 96
Eiseley, Loren (1907–1977), 13, 154, 211
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 76
“Electrical Model illustrating a Mind having a Will but capable of only Two Ideas” (Richardson), 87
electricity, 6, 42, 58–59, 141. see also currency
and Erasmus Darwin, 22–23
Nathaniel Hawthorne on, 211
and Smee, 45, 47–48
and telegraphy, 138, 139–44
electrodynamics, and Ampère, 6, 141
electronic connectors, consumption of, 8
electronic mail, 165–66, 209
electronics, 130, 198, 202. see also integrated circuits; microprocessors; vacuum tubes
and digital computing, 10, 31, 64–71, 75, 80–81, 87–88, 93–107
and logic, 6, 37, 44, 103, 130, 159
proliferation of, 8, 30, 91, 167, 203
electrons, nature of, and mind, 109, 195, 197–98
electrotherapy, 22
Elements of Electro-Biology (Smee), 45
Eliot, T. S., on his residence at the IAS, 94
Ellsworth, Miss Annie, 142
emergence, of life and intelligence, 9, 12, 18, 29, 188, 204, 223–24
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), 44, 67, 78, 80–83, 85, 87–88, 90, 98, 99, 224
Enigma (cryptographic machine), 62–65, 81
entelechies (Leibniz), 35
entomology, recombinant, 174
entropy, decrease of, and cost, 170
Entscheidungsproblem, 54–55, 57
Erewhon (Butler), 16–17, 24, 26, 226
Erewhon Revisited (Butler), 17
error, and intelligence, 45, 70
error correction, 124, 133, 150, 156, 189
Eskdalemuir (Scotland), 196
Essai d’Arithmétique Morale (Buffon), 154
Essay on the Philosophy of Science (Ampère), 6
Estrin, Gerald, 148
ETH (Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, Zurich), 78
eternity, and mind, 218
ether (electromagnetic), 195
eukaryotic cells, 12, 112
evolution. see also symbiogenesis; Darwin, Charles; Darwin, Erasmus; Darwinism; Butler
acceleration of, 32, 81, 115, 119, 123, 130, 190–91
artificial, 111, 113–21, 123, 125–28, 184, 215–16
Darwinian, 111, 113–14, 119, 186, 190, 202
Darwinian, limits of, 30–31, 115, 186–87, 188, 190–91, 217
and game theory, 153, 155, 185
intelligence of, 18, 27, 71, 115, 185–90, 227–28
&n
bsp; of intelligence, 18, 82, 109–110, 219, 223–24
Lamarckian, 20, 29–31, 113
of meaning, 8, 156, 158, 171, 183
progressive and regressive, 115, 190, 226
of software, 9, 98, 121–24, 224
and stagnation, 114, 116
wastefulness of, 215
Evolution, Old and New (Butler), 20, 23, 27
evolution, stellar, 83
Exchequer tallies, 162–64, 165
excitation and inhibition, in neural nets, 46, 159
F
Fahie, John J., 140
Famous History of Frier Bacon, 212–14
feathers, evolution of, and flight, 81
feedback, 6, 170, 219
Fekete, Michael, 77
Ferranti Ltd., 70
Feynman, Richard P. (1918–1988), 83–84, 86, 173–74
fiber optic communications, 7, 8–9, 203–204, 207
Fiddling While Rome Bums (Dyson), 221
field, computational, 216
Fine Hall (Princeton University), 58, 96
firing tables (ballistic), 79–81
First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC (von Neumann), 90
First Year in Canterbury Settlement (Butler), 16
Fish (cryptographic machine), 63–66
Flexner, Abraham (1866–1945), 95–97
Flexner, Esther and Moritz, 95
floppy disks, 7, 98, 122
Flowers, Thomas H., 65, 67
Ford, Vincent, 76
formal systems, 7, 36–38, 43–50, 53–58, 70–71, 78, 130, 157, 167–68, 190. see also Boole; Gödel; incompleteness; Leibniz; Turing machine
Fortran (Formula Translation language), 122
foundries, silicon, 214
Frankel, Stan, 84, 88
Frankenstein (Shelley), 22
Franklin, Benjamin (1706–1790), 21, 139
frequency modulation (in biology), 169, 225
Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay (Greene), 212
Friends’ Ambulance Unit (World War I), 86, 193–97
Fuld, Caroline (Mrs. Felix), 95
Fuld Hall (Institute for Advanced Study), 97, 100, 102
functions. see also computability; Turing machine
Boolean, 43–44
computable, 7, 9, 40, 54–55, 57–58, 62, 139
effectively calculable, 54–55, 57
halting, 57
iterated, 37, 54, 61
noncomputable, 54, 57–58
recursive, 7, 54–55, 57, 167, 190
successor, 54–55
fungi, 112, 129
fuzzy logic, 44
G
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), 3, 75, 80, 113
Galvani, Luigi (1737–1798), 22–23
galvanism, 22–23, 140, 160
“Galvanism and its application to Telegraphy” (Salvá), 140
game theory, 6, 76, 89, 146, 153–59, 168, 171–72, 185
Gandy, Robin, on Turing, 55
ganglia, computational, 226
Garrett, Garet (1878–1954), 221, 226–27
Gaure, Simen, on Barricelli, 120, 129