Do Penguins Have Knees?

by David Feldman

  According to Dr. Frank Davidoff, of the American College of Physicians, these gaps are most frequently found in the inguinal area in men, “the area where the tube (duct) that connects each testicle to the structures inside the body passes through the body wall.” Some men are born with fairly large gaps to begin with. The danger, Davidoff says, is that

  Repeated increases in the pressure inside the abdomen, as from repeated and chronic coughing, lifting heavy weights, etc., can push abdominal contents into the gap, stretching a slightly enlarged opening into an even bigger one, and leading ultimately to a permanent bulge in contents out through the hernia opening.

  Inguinal hernias are obvious and can be disfiguring when they are large and contain a sizable amount of abdominal contents, such as pads of fat or loops of intestine. However, hernias are actually more dangerous when they are small, because a loop of bowel is likely to get pinched, hence obstructed, if caught in a small hernia opening, while a large hernia opening tends to allow a loop of bowel to slide freely in and out of the hernia “sac” without getting caught or twisted.

  Doctors are therefore particularly concerned about detecting inguinal hernias when they are small, exactly the situation in which they have not been obvious to the patient. A small inguinal hernia may not bulge at all when the pressure inside the abdomen is normal. Most small hernias would go undetected unless the patient increased the pressure inside the abdomen, thus causing the hernia sac to bulge outward, where it can be felt by the doctor’s examining finger pushed up into the scrotum.

  And the fastest, simplest way for the patient to increase the intra-abdominal pressure is to cough, since coughing pushes up the diaphragm, squeezes the lungs, and forces air out past the vocal cords. By forcing all the abdominal muscles to contract together, coughing creates the necessary increase in pressure.

  If the physician can’t feel a bulge beneath the examining finger during the cough, he or she assumes the patient is hernia-free.

  And why do you have to turn your head when coughing? Dr. E. Wilson Griffin III, a family physician at the Jonesville Family Medical Center, in Jonesville, North Carolina, provided the most concise answer: “So that the patient doesn’t cough his yucky germs all over the doctor.”

  Submitted by Jeffrey Chavez of Torrance, California. Thanks also to J. S. Hubar of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

  Why Is the “R” Trademark Symbol on Pepsi Labels Placed After the Second “P” in “Pepsi” Rather Than After the Words “Pepsi” or “Cola”?

  We spoke to Chris Jones, Pepsi’s charming manager of public affairs, who is by now used to our less than earth-shatteringly important questions. She told us that, legally speaking, the company could have put the registered mark wherever it wanted to.

  But the company wanted to place the mark in the “Pepsi” rather than the “Cola.” It seems that Pepsi has a competitor in the cola wars—its name escapes us at the moment—so they wanted to draw attention to the “P-word” rather than the “C-word.”

  Jones says that graphic designers felt that the mark after the second “p” looked better than placing it after the “i” in Pepsi: It made the design more symmetrical and didn’t butt up against the hyphen after Pepsi.

  Submitted by Tom Cunnifer of Greeley, Colorado.

  Why Do Magazine and Newspaper Editors Force You to Skip Pages to Continue an Article at the Back of the Magazine/Newspaper?

  We answered the question of why page numbers are missing from magazines in Why Do Dogs Have Wet Noses?. Now, from our correspondent Karin Norris: “It has always annoyed me to have to hold my place and search for the remainder of the article, hoping the page numbers will be there.”

  We hear you, Karin. In fact, one of the great pleasures of reading The New Yorker is the certainty that there will be no such jumps. We had always assumed that the purpose of jumps was to force you to go to the back of the book, thus making advertisements in nonprime areas of the paper or magazine more appealing to potential clients. Chats with publishers in both the newspaper and magazine field have convinced us that other factors are more important.

  A newspaper’s front page is crucial to newsstand sales. Editors want readers to feel that if they scan the front page, they can get a sense of the truly important stories of the day. If there were no jumps in newspapers, articles would have to be radically shortened or else the number of stories on the front page would have to be drastically curtailed.

  Less obviously, magazine editors want what Robert E. Kenyon, Jr., executive director of the American Society of Magazine Editors, calls “a well-defined central section.” Let’s face it. Most magazines and newspapers are filled with ads, but with the possible exception of fashion and hobbyist magazines, readers are usually far more interested in articles. Magazine editors want to concentrate their top editorial features in one section to give at least the impression that the magazine exists as a vehicle for information rather than advertising. J. J. Hanson, chairman and CEO of The Hanson Publishing Group, argues that sometimes jumps are necessary:

  An article that the editor feels is too long to position entirely in a prime location will jump to the back of the book, thus permitting the editor to insert another important feature within the main feature or news “well.” Many publishers try very hard to avoid jumps.

  The unhappiest version of a jump is one where an article jumps more than once so that instead of completing the article after the first jump, the reader reads on for a while and then has to jump again. That’s almost unforgivable.

  Hanson adds that another common reason for jumps in magazines, as opposed to newspapers, is color imposition:

  Most magazines do not run four-color or even two-color throughout the entire issue. Often the editor wants to position the major art treatment of his features or news items within that four-color section. In order to get as many articles as possible in that section, the editor sometimes chooses to jump the remaining portions of the story to a black and white signature.

  Of course, advertising does play more than a little role in the creation of jumps. Most publications will sell clients just about any size ad they want. If an advertiser wants an odd-sized ad, one that can’t be combined with other ads to create a full page of ads, editorial content is needed. It is much easier to fill these holes with the back end of jumps than to create special features to fill space. The New Yorker plugs these gaps with illustrations and funny clippings sent in by readers, which, truth be told, may be read more assiduously than their five-part book-length treatments on the history of beets.

  Submitted by Karin Norris of Salinas, California.

  What Does the EXEMPT Sign Next to Some Railroad Crossing Signs Mean?

  EXEMPT signs are not intended for drivers of private cars, but rather for drivers of passengers for hire, school buses carrying children, or vehicles carrying flammable or dangerous materials. Ordinarily, these vehicles must stop not more than fifty feet or less than fifteen feet from the tracks of a railroad crossing, and their drivers are supposed to listen for signs of an approaching train, look in each direction along the tracks, and then proceed only if it is apparent no train is near.

  But an exception to this federal regulation is granted to

  an industrial or spur line railroad grade crossing marked with a sign reading “EXEMPT.” Such EXEMPT signs shall be erected only by or with the consent of the appropriate state or local authority.

  According to the signage bible, the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, an EXEMPT sign informs the relevant drivers that “a stop is not required at certain designated grade crossings, except when a train, locomotive, or other railroad equipment is approaching or occupying the crossing or the driver’s view of the sign is blocked.”

  Robert L. Krick, of the Federal Railroad Administration, told Imponderables that some states do not permit the use of EXEMPT signs or may attach additional meanings to them. And Krick makes it clear that an EXEMPT sign does not relieve any driver from the responsibility of determining
that no train is approaching before entering a crossing. Krick emphasizes the motto of the FRA’s Operation Lifesaver: “Trains Can’t Stop; You Can.”

  Submitted by Tisha Land of South Portland, Maine.

  In Why Do Clocks Run Clockwise?, we answered a myriad of questions about M&Ms. What food product seems to mystify North America today? Bubble gum, evidently.

  What Flavor Is Bubble Gum Supposed to Be?

  “No particular flavor,” said a representative from Bubble Yum about its “regular” flavor.

  “Fruit flavor—sort of a tutti frutti,” responded an executive from Topps.

  We hadn’t encountered so much secrecy about ingredients since we pried the identity of the fruit flavors in Juicy Fruit gum from the recalcitrant folks at Wrigley.

  In When Do Fish Sleep?, we discussed how bubble gum was invented by Walter Diemer, a cost accountant with the Fleer Corporation. Bruce C. Wittmaier, a relative of Mr. Diemer’s, was the only source who would reply to our bubble gum question. And luckily, Wittmaier obtained his information directly from Mr. Diemer. The main flavors in the original bubble gum: wintergreen, vanilla, and cassia.

  Submitted by John Geesy of Phoenix, Arizona.

  What Makes Bubble Gum Blow Better Bubbles Than Regular Chewing Gum?

  All chewing gums consist of gum base, some form of sugar (or sorbitol in sugarless gums), softeners, and flavoring. The key to producing good bubbles is the proper gum base. As a representative of Amurol Products Company put it, “Gum base is the part that puts the ‘chew’ in chewing gum and the ‘bubble’ into bubble gum.” Until recently, the gum base consisted mostly of tree resin; now, most manufacturers use polyvinyl acetate, a synthetic resin.

  In order to produce a substantial bubble, the gum must be strong enough to withstand the pressure of the tongue and the formation of an air pocket but also flexible enough to stretch evenly as it expands. The secret ingredient in bubble gum is a class of ingredients called “plasticizers,” a synthetic gum base that stretches farther than plain resin. Plasticizers guarantee sufficient elasticity to insure that little kids can pop bubbles big enough to plaster pink crud all over their chins and eyes simultaneously.

  Submitted by Karin Norris of Salinas, California.

  Why Does Bazooka Joe Wear an Eye Patch?

  Rest easily. Bazooka Joe has 20-20 vision and no eye deformity. But ever since he was introduced in 1953, Joe has donned an eye patch to give himself a little bit of that Hathaway Man panache.

  And before you ask—Herman has always hidden behind his turtleneck, but he does have a perfectly functional neck.

  Submitted by Christopher Valeri of East Northport, Rhode Island.

  What Is the White Stuff on Baseball Card Bubble Gum and Why Is It There?

  The white stuff is powdered sugar. And according to Bill O’Conor, of Topps, it is sprinkled on gum to keep it from sticking to other pieces of gum during the manufacturing process.

  Both before and after “baseball” gum is cut to its final size, it is placed in stacks in a magazine. The powdered sugar prevents the pieces from clumping together. Bazooka brand gum, also made by Topps, doesn’t need the powdered sugar because it isn’t stacked in the same way.

  Card gum contains less water than conventional bubble gum, but in humid conditions it absorbs moisture. The powdered sugar also prevents the wrapper from sticking to the gum on hot, sticky days.

  Why Are Baseball Card Wrappers Covered with Wax?

  Wax Wrap allows the cards and gum to be sealed with heat, an economical, quick, and safe method to secure the integrity of the packaging. But most bubble gum manufacturers are switching to poly-wraps because new equipment is faster and poly creates a more airtight seal. Now that baseball cards can be worth as much as objets d’art, it seems appropriate that the waxy texture of the wrappers will be eradicated.

  Submitted by Kim Chase of Crestline, California.

  Why Do Some Binoculars Have an Adjustment Only for the Right Eyepiece?

  Militant left-handers swear to us that we live in a right-handers’ world. But their argument doesn’t hold up too well when it comes to binoculars; this is one case where the lefties have priority over those right-dominant types.

  Binoculars can be focused in two ways. The “individual focus binocular” provides diopter scales for each eyepiece and spiral-type adjustments so that you can fix each eyepiece.

  But our Imponderable refers to the “central focusing system,” which has a focusing wheel in between the barrels of the two eyepieces. According to Bill Shoenleber, of Edmund Scientific Co.,

  This model is equipped with an individual diopter focus on one of the eyepieces (usually the right one). The center focus is used until the image seen by the left eye is clear. Then the diopter adjustment is used to adjust the focus for the right eye. Once corrected for your own individual diopter difference between eyes, it is then necessary only to use the center focus itself to get equally clear images for both eyes.

  Bushnell and many other companies do make binoculars with the individual focus on the left, but for unknown this configuration has never sold as well.

  Submitted by Owen Elliott of Juno Beach, Florida.

  Why Do Scabs Always Itch So Much?

  Scabs don’t itch, Ruth. People do.

  Honest. Scabs are just crusts of dried blood and fiber that cover a wound. It’s the wound that itches.

  In Imponderables, we discussed how the itching sensation is sent through the same neural pathways as pain signals. In fact, most scientists and doctors believe that, as dermatologist Jerome S. Litt describes it, “An itch is a minuscule pain.” Litt explains why the wound itches:

  In the healing process, some of the nerve fibers that mediate both pain and itch become irritated and inflamed. This process leads to the small pain (itch) we encounter…. Were these scabs deeper, we would then experience frank pain.

  What happens during the recovery period to irritate nerve fibers? Wounds repair themselves and shrink in size, partly because of the elasticity of the skin, but partly because the scab pulls on the wound.

  Less frequently, itching can be caused by infections or small cracks in the scab as it dries. Dermatologist Samuel T. Selden, of Chesapeake, Virginia, treats wounds with moist dressings, allowing the wound to heal without scabbing, and reports that he has not heard any complaints from patients about itching.

  Submitted by Ruth Gudz of Prescott, Arizona. Thanks also to Tricia Roland of St. Louis, Missouri.

  What Is the Purpose of the Holes on the Sides of Men’s Hats? Decoration? Ventilation? A Receptacle for Feathers? Or?

  Clothing historian and writer G. Bruce Boyer is emphatic: “The holes in the sides of men’s hats are specifically and exclusively for ventilation.”

  Every hat manufacturer we spoke to agreed with Mr. Boyer. Feathers are usually placed in the hat band, not the holes. Nobody thought that the holes added much to the look of the hat.

  So we went back to the poser of this Imponderable, proud of our newfound knowledge. And then he gave us a discomfiting response. If the holes are for ventilation, why does the sweat band inside of his hat cover the holes from the inside?

  Hmmm.

  Submitted by Ron Weinstock of New York, New York.

  How Do They Peel and Clean Baby Shrimp?

  Increasingly, by machine. The Laitram Corporation, based in New Orleans, Louisiana, dominates the field of automatic shrimp processing. With four separate stations, Laitram machines can process hundreds of pounds of shrimp per hour.

  1. The high-capacity shrimp peeler can peel between 500 and 900 pounds of shells-on shrimp per hour, with or without heads.

  2. The cleaner detaches unwanted gristle and waste appendages and then sends the shrimp on a flume ride to clean the crustaceans.

  3. The waste separator segregates the waste material detached in the last step.

  4. The deveiner deveins the shrimp.

  These machines are neither sleek nor pretty—one peeler weighs more than
two tons—but they save money. Machines also can grade shrimp and separate them by size, and they work just as easily on baby shrimp as jumbos.

  How Do Football Officials Measure First Down Yardage with Chains, Especially When They Go on Field to Confirm First Downs?

  In Professional football, careers and millions of dollars can rest on a matter of inches. We’ve never quite figured out how football officials can spot the ball accurately when a running back dives atop a group of ten hulking linemen, let alone how the chain crew retains the proper spot on the sidelines and then carries the chain back out to the field without losing its bearings. Is the aura of pinpoint measurement merely a ruse?