Lone Survivors

by Chris Stringer

  Sources and Suggested Reading

  General Reading

  Boyd, R., and J. Silk. How Humans Evolved. 5th ed. Norton, New York, 2009.

  Cartmill, M., and F. Smith. The Human Lineage. 2nd ed. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, NJ, 2009.

  Darwin, C. The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online. http://darwin-online.org.uk.

  Fagan, B. Cro-Magnon: How the Ice Age Gave Birth to the First Modern Humans. Bloomsbury Press, London, 2010.

  Johanson, D., and K. Wong. Lucy’s Legacy: The Quest for Human Origins. Harmony Books, New York, 2009.

  Klein, R. G. The Human Career. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2009.

  Lewin, R., and R. A. Foley. Principles of Human Evolution. Blackwells, Oxford, 2003.

  Lockwood, C. The Human Story. Natural History Museum, London, 2007.

  Potts, R., and C. Sloan. What Does It Mean to Be Human? National Geographic, Washington, DC, 2010.

  Stringer, C. Homo britannicus. Allen Lane, London, 2006.

  _____. “Modern Human Origins—Progress and Prospects.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London (B) 357 (2002), 563–79.

  Stringer, C., and P. Andrews. The Complete World of Human Evolution. Thames & Hudson, London, 2005.

  Stringer, C., and C. Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals. Thames & Hudson, London, 1993.

  Wood, B. Human Evolution (a Brief Insight). Sterling, New York, 2011.

  Zimmer, C. Smithsonian Intimate Guide to Human Origins. Harper, New York, 2007.

  1. The Big Questions

  Beaumont, P. B., H. De Villiers and J. C. Vogel. “Modern man in sub-Saharan Africa prior to 49,000 years B.P.: A review and evaluation with particular reference to Border Cave.” South African Journal of Science 74 (1978), 409–19.

  Brace, C. L. “The fate of the ‘Classic’ Neanderthals: A consideration of hominid catastrophism.” Current Anthropology 59 (1964), 3–43.

  Bramble, D. M., and D. E. Lieberman. “Endurance running and the evolution of Homo.” Nature 432 (2004), 345–52.

  Bräuer, G. “The ‘Afro-European sapiens hypothesis’ and hominid evolution in east Asia during the Middle and Upper Pleistocene.” Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 69 (1984b), 145–65.

  Campbell, B. G. “Conceptual progress in physical anthropology: Fossil Man.” Annual Review of Anthropology 1 (1972), 27–54.

  Cann, R. L., M. Stoneking and A. C. Wilson. “Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution.” Nature 329 (1987), 111–12.

  Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., A. Piazza, P. Menozzi and J. Mountain. “Reconstruction of human evolution: Bringing together genetic, archaeological, and linguistic data.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 85 (1988), 6002–6.

  Clark, D. “Africa in prehistory: Peripheral or paramount?” Man 10 (1975), 175–98.

  Coon, C. S. The Origin of Races. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1962.

  Dart, R. A. “Australopithecus africanus: The man-ape of South Africa.” Nature 115 (1925), 195–99.

  Darwin, C. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. John Murray, London, 1871; Penguin Classics, London, 2004.

  _____. On the Origin of the Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. John Murray, London, 1859.

  Gröning, F., J. Liu, M. J. Fagan and P. O’Higgins. “Why do humans have chins? Testing the mechanical significance of modern human symphyseal morphology with finite element analysis.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology (2010) (doi: 10.1002/ajpa.21447).

  Howell, F. C. “Upper Pleistocene men of the southwest Asian Mousterian.” In G. H. R. von Koenigswald, ed., Neanderthal Centenary, 1856–1956, pp. 185–98. Kemink en Zoon, Utrecht, 1958.

  Howells, W. W. “Explaining modern man: Evolutionists versus migrationists.” Journal of Human Evolution 5 (1976), 477–96.

  Hrdlička, A. The Skeletal Remains of Early Man. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, 1930.

  Klein, R. G. The Human Career. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2009.

  Leakey, R. E. F., K. W. Butzer and M. H. Day. “Early Homo sapiens remains from the Omo River region of Southwest Ethiopia.” Nature 222 (1969), 1132–38.

  Linnaeus, C. Systema Naturae. 10th ed. Vol. 1. Holmiae, Salvii, 1758.

  McCown, T. D., and A. Keith. The Stone Age of Mount Carmel. Vol. 2. Clarendon, Oxford, 1939.

  Notton, D., and C. Stringer. “Who Is the Type of Homo sapiens?” (2010). http://iczn.org/content/who-type-homo-sapiens.

  Reader, J. Missing Links: The Hunt for Earliest Man. Collins, London, 1990.

  Schwartz, J. H., and I. Tattersall. “Fossil Evidence for the Origin of Homo sapiens. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 53 (2010), 94–121.

  Shipman, P. The Man Who Found the Missing Link: Eugène Dubois and his Lifelong Quest to Prove Darwin Right. Simon & Schuster, New York, 2001.

  Smith, A. Systematics and the Fossil Record: Documenting Evolutionary Patterns. Oxford, Blackwell, 1994.

  Smith, F. H., I. Janković and I. Karavanić. “The assimilation model, modern human origins in Europe, and the extinction of Neandertals.” Quaternary International 137 (2005), 7–19.

  Stringer, C. “Out of Africa—a Personal History.” In M. H. Nitecki and D. V. Nitecki, eds., Origins of Anatomically Modern Humans, pp. 151–72. Plenum Press, New York, 1994.

  Stringer, C., and R. McKie. African Exodus. Cape, London, 1996.

  Templeton, A. R. “The ‘Eve’ hypothesis: A genetic critique and reanalysis.” American Anthropologist 95 (1993), 51–72.

  Trinkaus, E. “Early Modern Humans.” Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), 207–30.

  Weidenreich, F. “Facts and speculations concerning the origin of Homo sapiens.” American Anthropologist 49 (1947), 187–203.

  White, R. “Rethinking the Middle/Upper Paleolithic transition.” Current Anthropology 23 (1982), 169–92.

  Wolpoff, M., C. B. Stringer and P. Andrews. “Modern human origins.” Science 241 (1988), 773–74.

  Wolpoff, M. H., A. G. Thorne, F. H. Smith, D. W. Frayer and G. G. Pope. “Multiregional evolution: A world-wide source for modern human populations.” In M. H. Nitecki and D. V. Nitecki, eds., Origins of Anatomically Modern Humans, pp. 175–99. Plenum Press, New York, 1994.

  Wolpoff, M. H., W. X. Zhi and A. G. Thorne. “Modern Homo sapiens origins: A general theory of hominid evolution involving the fossil evidence from east Asia.” In F. H. Smith and F. Spencer, eds., The Origins of Modern Humans: A World Survey of the Fossil Evidence, pp. 411–83. Alan R. Liss, New York, 1984.

  2. Unlocking the Past

  Aitken, M., C. B. Stringer and P. Mellars. The Origin of Modern Humans and the Impact of Chronometric Dating. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1993.

  Ambrose, S. H. “Did the super-eruption of Toba cause a human population bottleneck? Reply to Gathorne-Hardy and Harcourt-Smith.” Journal of Human Evolution 45 (2003), 231–37.

  Banks, W. E., F. d’Errico, A. Townsend Peterson, M. Masa Kageyama, A. Sima and M.-F. Sanchez-Goni. “Neanderthal extinction by competitive exclusion.” PLoS ONE 3 (2008), 1–8.

  Bradtmöller, M., A. Pastoors, B. Weninger and G.-C. Weninger. “The repeated replacement model—rapid climate change and population dynamics in Late Pleistocene Europe.” Quaternary International (2010) (in press).

  Bronk Ramsey, C., T. Higham, A. Bowles and R. Hedges. “Improvements to the pre-treatment of bone at Oxford.” Radiocarbon 46 (2004), 155–63.

  Castañeda, I. S., S. Mulitza, E. Schefuß, R. A. Lopes dos Santos, J. S. Sinninghe Damsté and S. Schouten. “Wet phases in the Sahara/Sahel region and human migration patterns in North Africa.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106 (2009), 20159–63.

  d’Errico, F., C. T. Williams and C. Stringer. “AMS dating and microscopic analysis of the Sherborne bone.” Journal of Archaeological Sciences 25 (1998), 777–87.

  Drake, N. A., A. S. El-Hawat, P. Turner, S. J. Armitage, M. J. Salem, K. H. White and S. McLaren.
“Palaeohydrology of the Fazzan Basin and surrounding regions: The last 7 million years.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 263 (2008), 131–45.

  Finlayson, C., and J. S. Carrión. “Rapid ecological turnover and its impact on Neanderthal and other human populations.” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 22 (2007), 213–22.

  Gathorne-Hardy F. J., and W. E. H. Harcourt-Smith. “The super-eruption of Toba, did it cause a human bottleneck?” Journal of Human Evolution 45 (2003), 227–30.

  Gowlett, J., and R. E. M. Hedges. Archaeological Results from Accelerator Dating. Oxford University School of Archaeology, Oxford, 1987.

  Grün, R. “Direct dating of human fossils.” Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 49 (2006), 2–48.

  Grün, R., J. Brink, N. Spooner, L. Taylor, C. Stringer, R. Franciscus and A. Murray. “Direct dating of Florisbad hominid.” Nature 382 (1996), 500–501.

  Grün, R., and C. B. Stringer. “Electron spin resonance dating and the evolution of modern humans.” Archaeometry 33 (1991), 153–99.

  _____. “Tabun revisited: Revised ESR chronology and new ESR and U-series analyses of dental material from Tabun C1.” Journal of Human Evolution 39 (2000), 601–12.

  Grün, R., C. Stringer, F. McDermott, R. Nathan, N. Porat, S. Robertson, L. Taylor, G. Mortimer, S. Eggins and M. McCulloch. “U-series and ESR analyses of bones and teeth relating to the human burials from Skhul.” Journal of Human Evolution 49 (2005), 316–34.

  Grün, R. C. B. Stringer and H. P. Schwarcz. “ESR dating of teeth from Garrod’s Tabun Cave collection.” Journal of Human Evolution 20 (1991), 231–48.

  Jacobi, R. M., and T. F. G. Higham. “The early lateglacial re-colonization of Britain: New radiocarbon evidence from Gough’s Cave, southwest England.” Quaternary Science Reviews 28 (2009), 1895–913.

  Jacobs, Z., and R. G. Roberts. “Advances in optically stimulated luminescence dating of individual grains of quartz from archaeological deposits.” Evolutionary Anthropology 16 (2007), 210–23.

  Jacobs, Z., R. G. Roberts, R. F. Galbraith, H. J. Deacon, R. Grün, A. Mackay, P. Mitchell, R. Vogelsang and L. Wadley. “Ages for the Middle Stone Age of Southern Africa: Implications for human behavior and dispersal.” Science 322 (2008), 733–35.

  Jones, S. C. “Palaeoenvironmental response to the ~74 Ka Toba ash-fall in the Jurreru and Middle Son valleys in southern and north-central India.” Quaternary Research 73 (2010), 336–50.

  Libby, W. F. Radiocarbon Dating. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1955.

  McDougall, I., F. H. Brown and J. G. Fleagle. “Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Ethiopia.” Nature 433 (2005), 733–36.

  Mellars, P., and J. French. “Tenfold population increase in Western Europe at the Neandertal-to-modern human transition.” Science 333 (2011), 623–27.

  Mercier, N., H. Valladas, O. Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C. Stringer and J.-L. Joron. “Thermoluminescence date for the Mousterian burial site of Es-Skhul, Mt. Carmel.” Journal of Archaeological Science 20 (1993), 169–74.

  Millard, A. R. “A critique of the chronometric evidence for hominid fossils: I. Africa and the Near East 500–50 ka.” Journal of Human Evolution 54 (2008), 848–74.

  Müller, U. C., J. Pross, P. C. Tzedakis, C. Gamble, U. Kotthoff, G. Schmiedl, S. Wulf and K. Christanis. “The role of climate in the spread of modern humans into Europe.” Quaternary Science Reviews 30 (2011), 273–79.

  Oppenheimer, C. “Limited global change due to the largest known Quaternary eruption, Toba ca. 74 kyr BP?” Quaternary Science Reviews 21 (2002), 1593–1609.

  Osborne, A. H., D. Vance, E. J. Rohling, N. Barton, M. Rogerson and N. Fello. “A Humid Corridor across the Sahara for the Migration ‘Out of Africa’ of early modern humans 120,000 years ago.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105 (2008), 16444–47.

  Petraglia, M. D., R. Korisettar, N. Bolvin, C. Clarkson, P. Ditchfield, S. Jones, J. Koshy et al. “Middle Paleolithic assemblages from the Indian subcontinent before and after the Toba Super-Eruption.” Science 317 (2007), 114–16.

  Rampino, M. R., and S. H. Ambrose. “Volcanic winter in the Garden of Eden: The Toba supereruption and the late Pleistocene human population Crash.” Geological Society of America Special Paper 345 (2000), 71–82.

  RESET Project: http://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/RESET/embed.php?File=index.html.

  Robock, A., C. M. Ammann, L. Oman, D. Shindell, S. Lewis and G. Stenchikov. “Did the Toba volcanic eruption of ~74k BP produce widespread glaciation?” Journal of Geophysical Research 114 (2009), D10107 (doi: 10.1029/ 2008JD011652).

  Stewart, J. R., M. van Kolfschoten, A. Markova and R. Musil. “The mammalian faunas of Europe during oxygen isotope stage three.” In T. H. van Andel and S. W. Davies, eds., Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape During the Last Glaciation, 60,000 to 20,000 Years Ago: Archaeological Results of the Stage 3 Project, pp. 103–29. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, 2003.

  Stringer, C. B. “Dating the origin of modern humans.” In C. Lewis and S. Knell, eds., The Age of the Earth: From 4004 BC to AD 2002, pp. 265–74. Geological Society, London, 2001.

  _____. “Direct dates for the fossil hominid record.” In J. Gowlett and R. E. M. Hedges, eds., Archaeological Results from Accelerator Dating, pp. 45–50. Oxford University, Oxford, 1986.

  Stringer, C. B., and R. Burleigh. “The Neanderthal problem and the prospects for direct dating of Neanderthal remains.” Bulletin of the British and Natural History Museum, Geology Series 35 (1981), 225–41.

  Stringer, C. B., R. Grün, H. Schwarcz and P. Goldberg. “ESR dates for the hominid burial site of Es Skhul in Israel.” Nature 338 (1989), 756–58.

  Stringer, C., R. Jacobi and T. Higham. “New research on the Kent’s Cavern 4 maxilla, its context and dating.” In C. Stringer and S. Bello, eds., First Workshop of AHOB2: Ancient Human Occupation of Britain and Its European Context, pp. 25–27. AHOB, London, 2007.

  Stringer, C., H. Pälike, T. van Andel, B. Huntley, P. Valdes and J. Allen. “Climatic stress and the extinction of the Neanderthals.” In T. H. van Andel and S. W. Davies, eds., Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape During the Last Glaciation, pp. 233–40. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, 2003.

  Timmreck, C., H.-F. Graf. S. J. Lorenz, U. Niemeier et al. “Aerosol size confines climate response to volcanic super-eruptions.” Geophysical Research Letters 37 (2010), L24705 (doi: 10.1029/2010GL045464).

  Williams, M. A. J., S. H. Ambrose, S. van der Kaars, C. Ruehlemann, U. Chattopadhyaya, J. Pal and P. R. Chauhan. “Environmental impact of the 73 ka Toba super-eruption in South Asia.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 284 (2009), 295–314.

  3. What Lies Beneath

  Bailey, S. “Dental morphological affinities among late Pleistocene and Recent humans.” Dental Anthropology 14(2) (2000), 1–8.

  Bar-Yosef, O., and J. Callender. “The woman from Tabun: Garrod’s doubts in historical perspective.” Journal of Human Evolution 37 (1999), 879–85.

  Dean, M. C. “Tooth microstructure tracks the pace of human life-history evolution.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 273 (2006), 2799–808.

  Dean, C., M. Leakey, D. Reid, F. Schrenk, G. Schwartz, C. Stringer and A. Walker. “Growth processes in teeth distinguish modern humans from Homo erectus and earlier hominins.” Nature 414 (2001), 628–31.

  Drake, N. A., R. M. Blench, S. J. Armitage, C. S. Bristow and K. H. White. “Ancient watercourses and biogeography of the Sahara explain the peopling of the desert.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 108 (2011), 458–62.

  Gibbons, A. “Palaeontologists get X-ray vision.” Science 318 (2007), 1546–47.

  Harvati, K., S. R. Frost and K. P. McNulty. “Neanderthal taxonomy reconsidered: Implications of 3D primate models of intra- and interspecific differences.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 101 (2004), 1147–52.

  Hillson, S., S. Parfitt, S. Be
llo, M. Roberts and C. Stringer. “Two hominin incisor teeth from the Middle Pleistocene site of Boxgrove, Sussex, England.” Journal of Human Evolution 59 (2010), 493–503.

  Irish, J. D., and D. Guatelli-Steinberg. “Ancient teeth and modern human origins: An expanded comparison of African Plio-Pleistocene and recent world dental samples.” Journal of Human Evolution 45 (2003), 113–44.

  Martinón-Torres, M., J. M. Bermúdez de Castro, A. Gómez-Robles, J.-L. Arsuaga, E. Carbonell, D. Lordkipanidze, G. Manzi and A. Margvelashvili. “Dental evidence on the hominin dispersals during the Pleistocene.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 104 (2007), 13279–82.

  Müller, W., H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch and J. A. Wartho. “Origin and migration of the Alpine Iceman.” Science 302(5646) (2003), 862–66.

  Ponce de León, M. S., L. Golovanova, V. Doronichev, G. Romanova, T. Akazawa, O. Kondo, H. Ishida and C. P. Zollikofer. “Neanderthal brain size at birth provides insights into the evolution of human life history.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105 (2008), 13764–68.