vs. adaptation, 662, 671
Arnold’s illustration of, 1234-1238
definition of species selection and, 662
functional shift and, 1229-1234
key criteria of, 1234-1238
structural constraint and, 1246-1249
subcategories of, 1248-1249
subsequent changes and, 1236-1237
taxonomy of fitness chart and, 1233
as term, 43, 86, 1232-1233
usage in evolutionary literature, 1239-1246
use in nonevolutionary fields and, 1238-1239
exaptive pool, 49, 1270-1295
alternative taxonomies and, 1285-1286
concept of, 87, 1270-1277
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paradox of evolvability and, 1270-1277
proposed taxonomy of, 1277-1285 (see also franklins; miltons) size of, and constraint, 741
exceptions
Darwin and, 54, 133-136, 147, 596-597, 1058, 1059
orthogenetic theory and, 393
principle of nesting and, 683
vernacular criteria for individuality and, 603-604, 607
expansion-contraction cycles, 287-291
explanatory modes in science
mixing of, 1337-1338
paradox of contingency and, 1338-1342
plurality of, 1332-1337
“extended phenotype,” 638-641
extinction. See also catastrophic mass extinction; K-T (Cretaceous-Tertiary) transition
astronomical hypotheses and, 1308 (see also impact model)
Cuvier and, 486
Darwin and, 88, 246-248, 1296-1303
“hard version” of orthogenesis and, 353
Lamarck and, 176-177
species selection and, 246-248, 739-740
as “spread out,” 1300-1303
wedging metaphor and, 473-475, 1299
Weismann and, 220-221
extrapolationist claims. See scope, as Darwinian principle
eye development homologies, 82, 83, 1123-1134
facet-flipping. See saltationism
Falconer, Hugh
fossil elephants and, 51-52, 745-749
theory as framework vs. foundation and, 1-3, 19
falsifiability criterion, and the “argument from imperfection,” 758-761
Fantastic Voyage (science fiction film), 675
Farrar, T. H., 422-423
Farrow, M., 1174-1175
faunas. See ecosystems; evolutionary
faunas; Hamilton faunas; White River Chronofauna Fausto-Sterling, A., 764
“field of bullets” model, 736, 949, 1323-1326
final cause, 65, 288-289, 1187-1189. See also Aristotle; Thompson, D’Arcy W.
finches, Darwin’s, 192-193, 992, 1287
fingerprints, 349-350
fish. See also cave fishes, blindness in; stickleback fish; zebrafish
breathing in, 107-108, 560, 1224
Hox gene expression in, 1171-1172
opercular bones of, 301-303
Fisher, R. A., 926
eugenics and, 70, 512-514
“fundamental theorem” of, 511-512
The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, 70, 509-514, 644-646. 1323
levels of selection and, 544, 613
Modern Synthesis and, 70, 506, 508-514
nature of variation and, 144
species selection and, 72, 644-647, 651-652, 740, 1290
Fitch, D. H., 1147
fitness
Darwin’s definition of, 369n
emergent fitnesses and, 73, 657, 659-666, 671-673
taxonomy of, and exaptation, 1233
floral morphology. See ABC Model
fluctuating variation, 430-431, 437, 441-442
Flynn, L. J., 832-833, 842
focal level, 674
dominant relative frequency and, 807-810
weightings of causal mechanisms in trends and, 887
Foraminifera, 733, 752, 763, 795, 842, 873
as case against punctuated equilibrium, 803-810
cladistic topologies for, 820-822
gradualist claims and, 77, 830-832, 836-839
Ford, E. B., 541
Ford, V. S., 1146
formalism vs. functionalism. See structuralist-functionalist dichotomy
formalist tradition. See also Agassiz, Louis; Bateson, William; Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Etienne; Goethe, J. W. von; Goldschmidt, Richard; internal constraint; orthogenesis; Owen, Richard; saltationism; structural constraint; Thompson, D’Arcy W.
[Page 1406]
formalist tradition (continued)
basic themes of, 445-446
continental, 65, 118, 261n, 271-278
D’Arcy Thompson’s critique of Darwinism and, 1200-1204
demotion of, by Modern Synthesis, 507-508
natural theology and, 260, 271-278
pre-Darwinian concepts of evolution and, 64, 160-161
salience of parallelism in, 1084-1086
Fortey, R. A., 754, 769, 851, 856
fossil elephants debate, 51-52, 748-749
fossil record. See also intermediary forms; paleospecies, definability of
abrupt appearance of species in, 749-755, 758-759
argument from imperfection and, 75, 755-765, 794, 1296-1303
catastrophists and, 485-486
Cuvier and, 486, 490-491
Darwin and, 102-103, 474-475, 485, 757-758
as data, 564-566, 759-765
Lyell and, 485-486, 490-191
non-deposition hypothesis and, 1302-1303
punctuated equilibrium theory and, 760-761
Signor-Lipps effect and, 1309-1310
stasis as data and, 75, 759-765, 971
unanswerable questions and, 790-791
foundation vs. framework, theory as, 2-6, 19
“founder drift,” 737, 743
“founder effect,” 535-736, 737, 797-798
Fowles, J., 974
fractal geometry, 830, 888, 922, 950
Raup’s “field of bullets” model and, 1323-1326
framework vs. foundation, theory as, 2-6, 19
franklins
cross-level spandrels and, 1286-1288
inherent potentials vs. available things and, 1277-1279
Frazzetta, T. H., 452, 1230-1231
Freeman, P. W., 813-814
Freud, S., 1262, 1263
Fristrup, K., 611n, 656, 663, 672
“fruitful error,” 614, 616, 632. See also gene selectionism
functionalist tradition. See also Cuvier, Georges; Darwinism; Lamarckism; Modern Synthesis; Paley, William; structuralist-functionalist dichotomy
agreement on adaptation in, 1179
Darwin and, 64, 251-260, 331-332
Lamarckism and, 62, 179
natural theology and, 262-271
structuralist critique of Darwin and, 158-159
valid vs. invalid alternatives and, 507n
functionality, as criterion for individuality, 603, 650-651
functional shift. See quirky functional shift
fushi tarazu gene, 1163
futhark, 1238-1239
Futuyma, D., 77, 798-802, 830, 1008
Gabler, M. and N., 989
Gaia hypothesis, 612
gain-of-function mutations, 1100-1101
Galapagos Islands, 114-115, 192-193, 992
Galileo, 798, 1065, 1189, 1303n, 1323
Siderius nuncius, 1063
Galton, Francis, 343, 344-351. See also Galton’s polyhedron
Hereditary Genius, 344
Natural Inheritance, 344-346
Galton’s polyhedron, 344-351, 402n, 439, 464, 1200
historical constraint and, 1147, 1173-1174
illustration of, 345
Mivart and, 1220-1221
Gans, C., 977
Gasterosteus doryssus, 828-830
gastropods, 820-822. See also mollusks
cladistic topologies for, 820-822
Paleozoic, 730n, 733-735
; punctuational origin of, 843-844
spiraling in, 1045-1046
Gaudin, A. J., 578-579
Geary, D. H., 843-844, 852, 867, 868, 876
Gehring, W. J., 1124-1125, 1127
Geiger, G., 28
gene-individual, 73, 683-695
geneological ontogeny, 368-373
gene pools, 643
general homology, 1071-1072, 1079
generation time, test of, 815
Generelle Morphologie der Organismen (Haeckel), 208-210
gene selectionism
bookkeeping vs. causality and, 73, 632-637, 643-644, 655-656
codical hierarchy and, 641-644
[Page 1407]
distinction between replicators and interactors and, 72, 615-616
“extended phenotype” and, 638-641
as fallacy, 613-644
gene-individual in hierarchy theory and, 689-695
group effect on lower-level fitness and, 654-656
interaction as criterion for agency and, 622-625
internal textual incoherence and, 625-632
replication as criterion for agency and, 616-622, 635, 643
revisions and, 637-644
genetic drift. See also Wright, Sewall
levels of selection and, 685, 735-738, 1283
Modern Synthesis and, 70-71, 516, 522-524, 539
genetic mechanisms, 15. See also Mendelism; mutational variation
“gene” as term and, 424
“genetics” as term and, 409
Goldschmidt and, 456, 459, 460, 462-463
genetics, study of, 804-805. See also Mendelism; population genetics
genome studies
elements in genomes and, 690-691
evolvability and, 1273
exaptation as term and, 1239-1246
human genome and, 553n, 627, 1273
Pharaonic brick homology and, 1138
genotypes, 643, 810-812
Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Etienne, 65, 157
debate between Cuvier and, 282-283, 290-293, 303, 304-312
Discours préliminaire, 303
dorso-ventral inversions and, 83, 1117-1122
formalist vision of, 298-304, 1132
Goethe and, 282-283, 309-311
Naturphilosophie, 298
Philosophie anatomique, 301 -303
Principes de philosophie zoologique, 309
topology of formalism and, 305-306
vertebral archetype and, 82-83, 299-306, 320, 321, 1091, 1092, 1101, 1106-1117
geographic data, and evolutionary mode, 831, 842, 873
geographic variation in Cerion, 81, 82, 599, 1047-1051
as nonadaptative, 534-535, 538-539, 586
power of positive constraint and, 81
geological change, pace of, 492. See also geological time; tiers of time
geological data. See also fossil record Darwin and, 102-103
Lyell and, 485-486
Modern Synthesis and, 564-566
quality of, for continental vs. oceanic record, 805-810, 870
“geological moment,” 768, 851
geological time. See also punctuated equilibrium theory; scaling; scope, as Darwinian principle; tiers of time
anagenesis and, 723n-724n
catastrophists and, 484n
Darwin’s view of, 496-497
Kelvin and, 492-502
punctuated equilibrium and, 76, 674-675, 778-781
speciation in mutation theory and, 443-446
species as individuals and, 606
sympatric speciation and, 780
tiers of time and, 1328
time scales in nature and, 674-675
geology. See also geological time
catastrophism and, 44-45, 61, 162
Cuvier and, 295
gradualism and, 60-61, 152-155
Lamarck and, 180
license for progress and, 467-470
theory of punctuated equilibrium and, 45, 61, 152
uniformity and, 479-502
utility of punctuated equilibrium in, 961-962
viviparous lines and, 945
wedge metaphor and, 474-475, 1299
geometry, and spandrels, 1259-1263
Gerhart, J., 1271
German evolutionary thought, 208-214. See also Eimer, G. H. T.; germinal selection; Weismann, August
germinal selection, 63, 197-208, 596
Allmacht of selection and, 63, 197-201, 215, 219, 223-224, 596
as complement to personal selection, 214-224
as full hierarchy theory, 219-224
Lamarckian inheritance and, 63, 201-203
nonadaptive features and, 220-221
positive adaptation and, 217-219
problem of degeneration and, 203-208, 221-222
roots in German evolutionary thought and, 208-214
Gersick, C., 958-959, 960, 978
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Ghiselin, M. T., 1, 98, 120, 599-600, 601
Gilinsky, N. L., 890, 892
Gillispie, C. C., 173
Gilluly, J., 1304
Gingerich, P. D., 149n-150n, 733, 832, 833, 835, 864, 901, 980, 1015, 1019
giraffe example in Lamarck, 188
Gish, D. T., 986-987, 988, 990
Gleick, J., 993-994
Glen, W., 1304, 1307n, 1311-1312
Glennon, L., 974-975
Globorotalia (Globoconella) species, 831, 842, 873
Godfrey, L., 834
Goethe, J. W. von, 64-65, 281-291
criticism of, 285n
Cuvier and, 312
Faust, 1091
formalist tradition and, 283-284
Geoffroy and, 282-283, 309-311, 312
leaf archetype and, 82, 284-286, 1064, 1091, 1092
primacy of form and, 289-290
supplementary principles of, 286-289
Versuch de Metamorphose der Pflanzen zu erklären, 283, 284
“Goldilocks solution” as approach, 7-11
coral model and, 16-19
Darwinian efficacy and, 60, 149
Darwinian scope and, 69, 161-162
geological change and, 479-484
Goldschmidt, Richard, 38n, 65, 68, 451-466
anathemized status of, 453-454
formalist tradition and, 464-466
“hopeful monster” and, 68, 151, 452, 455, 457-464, 988, 992, 1006, 1007
key issues for current theory and, 456-466
Material Basis of Evolution, 452, 453, 454-456, 457-461, 462-464
saltation and, 144, 456-457, 464-466, 939
Theoretical Genetics, 456
Gombos, A. M., Jr., 1319
Goodfriend, G. A., 771-772, 851, 853
Goodman, E., 976-977
Goodman, N., 28
Goodwin, B., 85, 279, 1182, 1213
Gorman, J., 982
Gosse, P. H., 264
Gottlieb, L. D., 1146
Gould, C. G., 996
Gould, J. L., 193, 992, 995, 996
Gould, S. J.
history and, 35-37, 46-47, 57
personal odyssey of, 33-48, 54-55, 670-673
qualifications claimed by, 36-37
theory and, 37-48
writings, 33-34, 44, 46
article for Nature magazine (Gould and Eldredge, 1993), 971-972
“Evolutionary paleontology and the science of form,” 41
“Is a new and general theory of evolution emerging?” (1980)
paper), 1002-1003, 1005-1006
The Mismeasure of Man, 37
Ontogeny and Phylogeny, 25, 34, 35, 331n, 1005, 1061-1062
original paper on punctuated equilibrium (Eldredge and Gould, 1972), 761, 879-880, 979-980, 1001, 1010
gradualism. See also bifurcation; efficacy, as Darwinian principle
argument from imperfection and, 75, 755-765
in asexual forms, 807-810
Bateson and, 401-402
centrality of, in Darwin’s thought, 148-149, 154-155
charges
of inconceivability and, 107-108
coral model and, 146-147
De Vries and, 421, 427, 429-430, 440
as empirical claim, 481-482
evolution of viviparity and, 942-946
exemplars of, in paleontology, 752-753, 761-765 (see also Foraminifera)
forms of, in Darwin, 60-61, 149-155, 755-765
highest relative frequencies for, 830-834
historical continuity and, 149-152
insensible intermediacy claim and, 755-756
Lamarck and, 179n
as paradoxical in macroevolution, 606, 834-839, 876
rate of change and, 152-155
selective quotation of Darwin and, 147-148
sequence of intermediary steps and, 150-152
“slowness and smoothness” claim and, 756
[Page 1409]
speciation by branching and, 777
species as individuals and, 604-606
grafting, Darwin’s argument about, 132
granite, concepts of genesis of, 961
Grant, P., 991-992
Grantham, T. A., 657, 661, 662, 668-670, 705
graptolites, 845, 940
Gray, A., 227-228, 233, 329
great hippocampus debate, 46
Great Inagua (island), 771-772
Gregg, T. G., 996, 1016
Grene, M., 644, 1023-1024
Grenier, J. K., 1148-1149
Griffins, 1319
group selection. See also hierarchy theory; interdemic selection; levels of selection
classic arguments against, 646-652
criteria for individuality and, 603-604
deme-individual and, 701-703
kin selection and, 653
Occam’s razor and, 552-554
Williams and, 71, 521, 547, 550-554, 585, 648-649
Wynne-Edwards and, 136, 547-550
Gruss, R., 1104
Gryphaea, 52, 365, 515, 518, 760, 762, 763, 855, 857
adaptive value of coiling in, 1043-1044
positive constraint and, 80-81, 1040-1045
Haake, W., 351
Haas, O., 1069, 1076, 1079, 1086, 1087
habitat tracking, ecology of, 78, 880-881
Haeckel, E., 223, 331n, 567
biogenetic law, 353
Generelle Morphologie der Organismen, 208-210
Haim, A., 1282
Haldane, J. B. S., 70, 514-516, 558
Hallam, A., 763, 855, 856-857, 1044
Halstead, B., 984-985, 1007, 1016-1017
Hamburger, V., 452
Hamilton, W. D., 613
Hamilton faunas, 750, 865-866, 881, 918
Hansen, T. A., 890, 1318
Hanson, N. R., 761
Hardy, G. H., 411
Harrawav, D., 670
Harris, J. M., 866-867
Hatcher, J. B., 1331-1332, 1337
Heaton, T. H., 847-850, 853, 861-864
“hecatomb,” 122n
Hegelian triad, 23-24, 590-591
Heisler, J. L., 663
Heliocidaris, 941-942
The Structure of Evolutionary Theory Page 232