Cook's Encyclopaedia

by Tom Stobart

  [Carbohydrates – French: hydrates de carbone German: Kohlenhydrat Italian: idrati di carbonio Spanish: hidratos de carbone]

  CARBONATED WATER. See soda water.

  CARBON DIOXIDE or carbonic acid gas (CO2). The gas of soda water exists in small amounts in the air and is a necessary food for green plant life. It is formed when there is a fire – whenever organic matter is burned with adequate air (with insufficient air the very poisonous carbon monoxide, CO, is formed instead). Carbon dioxide gas is denser than air. It dissolves in water to give a weak acid – carbonic acid – which in nature slowly dissolves limestone and chalk, making the water hard and causing caverns in the rock. Carbon dioxide can be solidified by cold and high pressure; blocks of carbon dioxide snow or ‘dry ice’ are often used in ice cream carts – the blocks evaporating to gas at atmospheric pressure have a temperature of -78°C (-108°F). Carbon dioxide is the gas formed during the fermentation of wine and beer. If it is prevented from escaping (say in a screw-top bottle), its pressure builds up. Under pressure, carbon dioxide dissolves in water to a greater extent than under normal atmospheric pressure; it comes out again as a fizz when the pressure is released. Dissolved carbon dioxide gives a pleasant prickle in the throat, which is why drinks with a natural fizz, which have been known since ancient times, were later joined by drinks artificially gassed under pressure. Carbon dioxide under high pressure stops fermentation, a quality utilised to hold fruit juices (e.g. apple) in bulk before filtration to remove yeast cells. This technique has made possible the bottling of certain non-alcoholic fruit juices without pasteurization or preservatives.

  [Carbon dioxide – French: gaz carbonique German: Kohlensäuregas, Kohlendioxyd Italian: biossido di carbonio Spanish: dióxido de carbono]

  CARDAMOM. A highly aromatic spice seed which tastes vaguely like eucalyptus but is far sweeter and richer. The plant Elettaria cardamomum is related to ginger. A native of the wet, tropical jungles of southern India, it is now grown in many other places in the tropics. The small, dark brown or black seeds are borne inside capsules which may, as they reach us, be creamy, brownish, pale green or white. Much larger, dark brown, often hairy seed capsules of another cardamom species are commonly sold as black cardamoms. They are less aromatic, but cheaper. Cardamom is an expensive spice, one good reason why it should not be bought ready-ground – adulteration is too tempting. The other reason is that ground cardamom rapidly loses its best essential oils. It is better to break open the capsules and use the fresh seeds. Cardamom is important in Indian cooking. It is also much used in Scandinavia and Germany in cakes, in meat dishes (like Sauerbraten) and in pickled herrings. A seed dropped into coffee gives a strange taste (well known to anyone who has travelled in the Middle East) which most people will enjoy and which guests inquire about.

  [Cardamom – French: cardamome German: Kardamome Italian: cardamomo Spanish: cardamomo]

  CARDOON. A native of the Mediterranean region, the cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) is a close relative of the globe artichoke. However, it is not eaten for its thistle heads, but for its leaf stalks (which are like very large sticks of celery). Cardoons are best when blanched; otherwise they are too bitter. To prepare them, scrape the tender ribs and strip off the fibres and prickles on the outside. Then cut the ribs into suitable lengths. The simplest way to cook them is in boiling salted water until they are tender (25-30 minutes).They may then be served with butter, a rich white sauce or a cheese sauce; other methods are described in French and Italian cookbooks. Raw cardoon is eaten with the bagna cauda in Piedmont. The tender leaf part may also be eaten if it is treated in the same way as spinach. The flower buds can be used like artichokes. The flavour of cardoon is delicate and only vaguely like artichoke. lt comes into season in Mediterranean climates at the end of summer and lasts into early winter.

  [Cardoon – French: cardon German: Kardone Italian: cardone Spanish: cardo silvestre]

  CAROB or locust bean. A leguminous tree (Ceratonio siliqua) which is said to have its origin in Syria, though it has been grown around the Mediterranean for so long that it is one of the commonest sights amongst the pines on stony, dry hillsides, where few other trees can gain a footing. The pods, which turn dark brown in the autumn, have a very sweet pulp (50% sugar) and are sometimes sold as sweets for children. But they have a peculiar taste, which is not very pleasant perhaps, especially after you have smelled a stack of them fermenting on the quayside of a Mediterranean island, as they wait for shipment as cattle food. They are supposed to be the locusts eaten by John the Baptist, but why not the insects which are also eaten in many countries? Carob beans have recently come into fashion as a health food, but I have never succeeded in making anything very nice out of them (I have tried, as they are going begging). In the countries where they grow, carob beans are often not gathered. In Majorca, a thick, brown, treacly aperitif called palo is made from them and is much prized locally for its good effect on the stomach. The leathery leaves are used to stuff into the tops of jars of olives to keep them under the brine.

  [Carob – French: caroube German: Johannisbrot Italian: carruba Spanish: algarroba]

  CARMINE. See cochineal.

  CARP. There are hundreds of species of carp, mostly fish of fresh or brackish water, ranging from the goldfish to huge, active fish like the mahseer, a famous game fish of the northern hill streams of India. Surprisingly, the Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is not native to Europe; it was introduced from further east during the Middle Ages and was soon widely established in rivers and fish ponds. It was taken onwards to North America in the latter half of the 19th century and became naturalized, particularly in the Mid-West. Carp are plentiful in the great inland seas of Russia, in the Sea of Azov and the Caspian, where they are fished along with the sturgeon. Even there, they may have been introduced and their natural home may be the rivers of China.

  The importance of the Common carp is that it can so easily be farmed – as can many of its close relatives, which are often much larger. Because carp live on plankton, they live peacefully with other fish, and their food can be encouraged to proliferate by fertilizing the water with measured amounts of manure or purified sewage. They can, however, acquire a muddy taste when they live in stagnant ponds – which perhaps accounts for the poor reputation they had in Britain before the Industrial Revolution when the streams and rivers still held a profusion of fine fish. Carp are not only very hardy, standing considerable variation in conditions, but can even survive for a long time – up to a week – out of water if they are packed in wet moss. They are very long lived, reaching at least 50 years and weighing as much as 20 kg (44 lb) in exceptional circumstances. In parks, they become very tame, as they regard people as a source of food, not as a danger, whereas in the wild state they have become very cunning and have earned the title of ‘fox of the waters’ from anglers.

  As food fish, carp are inclined to be coarse even when young; they need a good sauce. Their flavour also depends very much on their food, although some of their occasional muddy taste can be removed by soaking in brine or in vinegar and water. Nevertheless, the only thing to do with a really muddy carp is throw it away. On the other hand, with its firm flesh and easy bones, the carp is highly esteemed in many countries. It is a versatile fish and can be cooked in almost any way, even au bleu – many national cookbooks give regional recipes. Normal sizes range from 1 kg (2 lb) to fine specimens of 4 kg (9 lb), above which the fish becomes increasingly coarse. Specimens from carp farms are normally around 1 kg (2 lb), a weight they reach at the end of their third summer. The typical carp has large, strong scales, which can be left on if the fish is to be skinned after cooking. Otherwise, they have to be removed, an operation which is made easier by quickly dunking the fish in boiling water. The gills should generally be removed as they can be a source of the muddy taste, and the gall sac must be extracted carefully.

  There are two artificially-bred varieties, the Mirror carp, which has a few very large scales, and the Leather carp, which has a lea
thery skin and almost no scales at all. Carp are said to be in season from 17th June to 13th March, when they are not breeding. The soft roe is a delicacy which is often cooked separately.

  Many important Chinese dishes are built around carp, and a sweet-sour sauce of some kind is also popular with this fish in Europe.

  [Carp – French: carpe German: Karpfen Italian: carpio, carpione Spanish: carpa]

  CARRAGEEN, Irish moss, sea-moss or pearl moss. One of the red algae, a tufted and fan-like seaweed, carrageen (Chondrus crispus) is found on rocky coasts of Northern Europe – notably in Ireland and Brittany – and across the Atlantic from Maine to North Carolina. This weed is collected especially in New England and commercially in Massachusetts, where it is spread out to dry and bleach on the beaches. It is moistened with seawater and allowed to dry again four or five times until the pale yellow, horny material called ‘moss’ results. This material contains a mucilaginous substance, carrageenin, which is much used in the preparation of commercial ice cream, soups and salad dressings. Carrageen can be gathered and sun dried by anyone interested enough, but can be bought as well. Typically, soak the dried material – after careful washing – for 20-30 minutes, then boil it in water or milk for a quarter of an hour or so. Strain off the liquid, which can be sweetened with sugar or honey. Add flavourings, such as fruit juice or sherry. When the liquid begins to set, fold in cream or beaten egg white. Jellies and drinks made with carrageen were in the past considered good for invalids.

  [Carrageen – French: carragheen, mousse perlée d’Irlande German: irländisches Moos, Perlmoos Italian: lichene d’Irlanda Spanish: musgo de Irlanda, carragahen]

  CARROT. One of the world’s most important root vegetables. The wild carrot (Daucus carota), which grows all over Europe, looks very unpromising food, and the garden carrot, which has been cultivated for two or three thousand years, is regarded as a distinct subspecies (ssp. sativus).The shape of the root ranges from conical to almost cylindrical and even globular. Orange varieties are the most commonly cultivated, but there are others with dark purple roots and usually a paler or greenish core. The latter are cultivated mostly in the warmer countries, such as Spain, Italy and India. Poor varieties may have a woody central core, especially when old. Carrots have an incomparable flavour when freshly pulled and cooked without scraping, since most of the flavour is in the skin. Unfortunately, they are now usually washed with high-pressure hoses to remove mud before marketing, and this ruins them. The outside quickly goes slushy and, after this has been removed, the usual tasteless vegetable results. Some recipes use herbs or add caramelized sugar and butter to produce a toffee flavour, but such expedients should not be necessary, as carrots are a flavouring in themselves. As such, they are frequently used in marinades, court-bouillons, fumets and stocks, occasionally browned to caramelize their sugar.

  Although carrots are rich in vitamins and in substances from which the body can make vitamin A, relatively little is absorbed by the human body from raw carrot which, however, especially when lightly perfumed with lemon zest, is an excellent part of salads or crudités. Many umbelliferous herbs (e.g. chervil, parsley, anise, fennel) go well with carrot, which is also an umbellifer.

  [Carrot – French: carotte German: Möhre Italian: corota Spanish: zanahoria]

  CASEIN. A heat-stable, insoluble substance containing phosphorus and calcium, casein is the main protein that can be extracted from milk. The tiny protein particles which are in colloidal suspension in milk are precipitated by dilute mineral acids – like the hydrochloric acid in the stomach – and by the lactic acid which is formed when milk sours, as in yoghurt. It is digested by the enzymes in the stomach (pepsin) and the large intestine (pancreatin) and by similar enzymes which are produced by micro-organisms, such as the bacteria in hard cheese and the moulds in blue-veined cheese.

  [Casein – French: caséine German: Kasein Italian: caseina Spanish: caseína]

  CASHEW. The nut of the cashew (Anacardium occidentale) grows out of the end of the fruit in a most peculiar and distinctive manner. The tree belongs to the same family as the mango and pistachio and comes from Brazil, where the native Indian name was acaju. As cajú, it was taken to Goa in India by the Portuguese and planted there in the 16th century; today, South India is one of the world’s largest exporters of nuts, on a level with Brazil itself. The cashew is also grown around the African coasts, in Malaya, the West Indies and elsewhere.

  The tree will grow in poor sandy soil with a low rainfall, but is at its best in the tropics near the sea. The fruit turns from green to yellow or orange with reddish tints when ripe. It is edible, but somewhat tart, fibrous and astringent from its tannin content. When this has been removed by boiling (3-4 minutes in slightly salty water) or pressure cooking for 5 minutes, it makes a very nice drink. Sugar must be added as the malic acid in the fruit makes it sour. Both in Brazil and in India (especially in Goa), the cashew fruit, or ‘apple’, is fermented to make a wine and is the basis also for vinegar.

  Cashew nuts are green or pinkish when tender, becoming grey when fully ripe. They can be eaten green and, in South India, are considered a delicacy when fried in various dishes. However, the shell is hard and oozes a dangerously blistering oily substance containing cardol and anacardic acid, even when the nuts are fully ripe. Green nuts must therefore be removed and washed with great care, without getting this oil on the skin. Wood ashes will help neutralize the oil, which is also dissipated by heating. Commercially, nuts are roasted in the shell in a rotating kiln. If doing the job by hand use care, as they easily burn. The acrid fumes are nasty. The shells used to be cracked by hand, but machines have been recently devised to do this delicate job.

  Good cashews are white, plump and sweet. The best quality nuts are sold whole or as halves; they are rather brittle, with a ‘short’ texture, unlike that of other nuts. Containing 47% oils, 21% protein and 22% carbohydrate, with considerable vitamin and mineral value, they are a good food. It is better to buy cashew nuts as required and not attempt to store them for very long at home.

  For a long time, they have been roasted and salted to serve with drinks in the tropics. When I first went to India, I was advised that eating too many would make me sick, but I have never found this to be the case and have frequently eaten more than a reasonable amount. Cashew nuts are much used in the cooking of South India, particularly in dishes from Kerala. They may be used whole or ground and are usually added late in the cooking, sometimes just before the dish is taken off the fire.

  [Cashew nut – French: noix d’acajou German: Elefantenlaus Italian: noce d’anacardo Spanish: nuez de anacardo]

  CASSAREEP. A dark, almost black, syrupy substance, essential for pepperpot, a Caribbean stew which originated in Guyana.To make cassareep, grate peeled bitter *cassava root, mixing it with about 100 ml (about 4 fl oz) cold water per kg (2 lb) of root, leaving it to soak for some minutes, then squeezing out the juice. To this, add about 2 teaspoons of brown sugar per kg (2 lb), cassava and a pinch each of cloves and cinnamon (although these spices came from the East and must not have figured in original pre-Columbian recipes); simmer the liquid until a syrupy consistency is reached. Bottled, prepared cassareep can be bought in shops that specialize in West Indian food. It can be very good.

  CASSAVA, manioc oryuca. The large, starchy tubers of the cassava plant (Manihot utilissima) are a staple in some tropical countries, notably in Central America and West Africa. The plant is easy to grow – it shoots up to some 3 m (10 ft) in nine months – and the tubers are easy to harvest. In fact, it is a good, lazy, hot-country crop.

  There are some 150 varieties, which fall broadly into two classes – sweet and bitter. Cassavas belong to the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae); they are often poisonous, and tubers of many varieties contain a glucoside which, when acted on by enzymes, produces quantities of deadly hydrocyanic acid (see bitter *almonds).This is exceedingly volatile and is driven off on cooking, but bitter cassavas must not be eaten raw as they are poisonous unless cooke
d.

  Cassava tubers are typically 25-30 cm (about 12 in) long and as thick as your wrist. They are covered with a scaly, rather hairy, bark which has to be peeled off (best do it under a tap).After this, the flesh can be grated, the juice squeezed out in a cloth (*cassareep can be made from that) and the pulp baked as flat cakes. It is also chipped, soaked, dried and deep fried (exactly as for potato chips), or made into a dried meal (farhina or farine de manioc). Outside the tropics though, most people know cassava best as *tapioca.

  A correspondent from the West Indies writes: ‘Cassava bread is not a taste teaser. We used to pour a rough Spanish red wine over it, and call it “wetdish-rag” in Cuba and the Dominican Republic, the presumption being a wet dish-rag would have tasted better, soap and all.’ As a food, cassava is particularly low in protein and high in starch; a diet in which it predominates can lead to malnutrition.

  [Cassava – French: cassave, manioc German: Maniok (Brotwurzle) Italian: cassava manioca Spanish: canabe, mandioca]

  CASTOR OIL Some idiot once told my small daughter that the seeds of the castor oil plant (Ricinus communis and allied species) were good to eat. Luckily, she did not eat many as they contain not only the well-known oil, but also some very poisonous substances (one of which, ricin, came to prominence as a means of political assassination). I have, however, one reference to castor oil being used in India to grease the tava (the circular iron plate, rather like a girdle) with ghee for frying chillies for a mutton pilau. ‘The castor oil will counteract the heating effect of the green chillies (its pungency disappears on cooking).’