Cook's Encyclopaedia

by Tom Stobart

  [Ice – French: glace German: Eis Italian: ghiaccio Spanish: hielo]

  ICE-CREAM, WATER ICE and SORBET. Ice-creams were probably invented in China, or at least somewhere in the East. At any rate, ices spread to the rest of Europe from northern Italy; it was one of the cooks who went to France with Catherine de Medici in 1533 who introduced them to the French court. Some hundred years later, another Italian chef brought them to the court of Charles I. In that same century, Italians opened cafes to sell ices in Paris (the first in 1670), at first selling sorbets and later ice-creams. It was Italians once more who introduced ice-cream into the US early in the 19th century. At that time ice-cream was a real luxury, and nobody could have foreseen the enormous profits which would be made in the 20th century from selling frozen froth. True, the machines that make the drums of coloured mixture into ices are rather expensive, but the products can then be sold at a quite remarkable profit. If ices were cheaper and more certainly harmless, they would have to be praised as (pace the dental profession) they are undoubtedly fun, especially for children. However, as a vehicle for synthetic dyes, sugar, synthetic flavourings, emulsifiers, stabilizers and lard, they are not above suspicion. Ices are very easily made at home, if you do not find it too much trouble. The primitive method (and still the best to use) is an ice-cream churn, consisting of a metal drum with a lid. Into this are put the materials to be frozen, the drum is surrounded with a freezing mixture of ice and salt, and is fitted with spring-loaded paddles which keep the ice-cream mixture continually stirred and pressed against the sides. Such a machine can be laboriously worked by hand or can have an electric motor. There are also electric sorbetières with stirring paddles, which make ice-cream in the freezer or freezing compartment of the refrigerator. Many people use recipes containing gelatine or egg white which need little stirring. There are two basic types of ice: water ices (sorbet, granita or frappé) and cream ices. In the former, fruit juices or purées are sweetened with sugar. This family of ices is expected to be granular, and so is suitably made in the freezer compartment of the refrigerator. Water ices should be stirred four or five times, or beaten with egg white while freezing to keep them from being too solid. Gelatine is another substance which helps to minimize the formation of ice crystals. Total freezing time is 4-6 hours, depending on circumstances. Sorbets and water ices should be light and refreshing. Cream ices, on the other hand, are rich and delicious. The cream and egg yolks have also a decided effect in preventing the growth of ice crystals. Again, there are many successful recipes for making ices in the freezer, with no more than an occasional stir while freezing, although the best texture, and exactly the right temperature results from using an ice-cream churn.

  [Ice-cream – French: glace, crème glacée German: Eis, Speiseeis Italian: gelato Spanish: helado]

  ICELAND MOSS (Cetraria islandica) is not a moss but a lichen, almost the only one that is used as a food (although the genus Roccella, which grows on coastal cliffs, yields dyes such as *cudbear and litmus). It is a moorland and mountain plant with a bitter taste which needs to be removed by thorough soaking in numerous changes of water. It can then be boiled to produce an edible jelly or dried and ground to a flour which is used in the Arctic to make bread.

  lLAMA. See custard apple.

  INDIAN CORN. See maize.

  INDIAN CRESS. See nasturtium.

  INDIAN DATE. See tamarind.

  INDIAN FIG or Indian pear. See prickly pear.

  INDIAN RICE. See wild rice.

  INSECTS. Marine crustaceans like shrimps, crabs and lobsters are forbidden to Orthodox Jews, so it is interesting to read in the Bible (Leviticus 11: 21-22) that Moses allowed four different kinds of insects as food, while the Islamic food laws, which have a common origin, allow the eating of locusts, though not of grasshoppers. Insects are a traditional food in many countries: in Africa, in parts of South East Asia (where spiders and scorpions are also sometimes put in the pot), in China (where silkworms are eaten) and by the Aborigines in Australia. Locusts were also liked in ancient Greece, but the tradition of eating them was never carried on into European and American cooking.

  Indeed, the very idea of eating insects is repulsive to most people, even though they eat honey (which we forget has been swallowed and regurgitated by insects) and put *cochineal into cake icing. If the comb containing bee larvae is blanched and the grubs removed, dried and then dry fried in a little salt, the result is an excellent appetizer. In fact, insects generally have a good taste. The witchity grub I once ate in North Queensland tasted like fish cooked in cream, while fried locusts have been described as tasting like roasted chestnuts. Many people I know like fried termites, and there are various combinations of insects and chocolate on the market. The insects used for food are much cleaner feeders than prawns and shrimps, but of course the reader should not rush off in a burst of enthusiasm and eat any sort of insect. Some probably taste horrible, and others, like the Spanish fly, a beetle used in the past as an aphrodisiac, are dangerously poisonous.

  A great many, though, are known locally as good food and a valuable source of protein when the insects swarm or can be collected in sufficient numbers. The Red or Carmine locust (Nomadacris septemfasciata) is the one most commonly eaten in Arabia. Only the females are eaten. They are boiled for about 5 minutes, have legs and wings removed, and are then fried in butter. Termites, species of Macrotermes, are often eaten in Africa when they swarm at the beginning of the rainy season. They are dry-fried, dried in the sun, have the wings winnowed away, and are then re-fried with a little salt and fat. Crickets, grasshoppers, shield bugs, flying ants and even some caterpillars are eaten. They may need to have the gut removed before they are cooked, just like some crustaceans, and it is necessary to follow local practice. One of the most interesting insect foods is provided by the Lake fly (Chaoboro edulis), which swarms at the new moon over Lake Nyasa. Though this is a tiny insect, it occurs in such numbers that the black clouds of countless millions can be seen for a considerable distance. The insects, when caught and dried in cakes, are a useful food. The cake is broken into bits, boiled in a little salt water till soft, and then incorporated with tomato, onion and pounded fried peanuts to make a sauce to go with rice or maize-meal porridge. I have no doubt that as the problem of feeding the world grows, the question of insects as a source of food will receive increasing attention.

  [Insects – French: lnsectes German: lnsekten Italian: insetti Spanish: insectos]

  INVERT SUGAR. A mixture of simple *sugars, *glucose and *fructose, which occurs naturally in many fruits, but is also made when cane sugar is warmed with a dilute acid (‘inverted’).

  [Invert sugar – French: sucre inverti German: lnvertzucker Italian: zucchero inverso Spanish: azúcar inverto]

  IODINE (I). An element that belongs to the same group as fluorine and chlorine. Small quantities in a combined form are essential in the human body, and shortage of iodine causes goitre, a condition that used to be very prevalent in mountainous country far from the sea, which is the major source of the element in nature. The iodine content of foods varies widely from place to place, but most people get enough in their diet. Good sources of iodine are seafish, shell fish, kelp, agar-agar, laver and other seaweed products or iodized salt, which is common salt to which 25 parts per million of potassium iodide have been added. In some seaweeds, as much as 0.2% of the living plant is iodine.

  [Iodine – French: iode German: Jod Italian: iodio Spanish: yodo]

  IRISH MOSS. See carrageen.

  IRON (Fe). A metal that makes up 4.7% of the earth’s crust (and almost certainly is one of the main constituents of its molten core), yet some soils are deficient in it. Iron is an essential element for human nutrition, as it is vital for the formation of the haemoglobin of red blood cells and pigment in muscles. We need to assimilate about 10 mg per day. Although iron is in an available form in many unrefined foods – liver, wholewheat, fruits and vegetables – it is often not absorbed as well as it might be, particularly when
oxalic acid is present, and it is absent, or short, in milk, white bread and sugar. (Iron is added in Britain to all bread flour other than 100% wholewheat to give it an iron content of 1.65 mg per 100 g); in the US, ‘enriched’ bread flour has 2.9 mg iron per 100 g. It is better to get iron from food than by taking supplements, and ferrous sulphate or chloride are best avoided.

  The Iron Age is the most recent archaeological age. As far as is known, iron was first worked in the Middle East about 2500 BC, but it was not until about 1200 BC that iron smelting became common. It is a very suitable metal for pots, grills, knives and other cooking utensils, being harmless (though not ideal with sour fruits or other acids). Early vessels were of beaten iron, much later came cast iron which was cheap, brittle and porous. Cast-iron frying-pans actually benefit from being porous – they become saturated with fat and so get a good, non-stick surface. lron surfaces are best ‘cured’ with fat and then rubbed with paper to remove excess fat. Girdles, tavas for making chapatties and iron plates for cooking a Ia plancha may be so cleaned and treated.

  Steel is iron with a little carbon and often other metals such as nickel or vanadium added. Mild steel is easily bent and makes excellent kebab skewers. Stainless steel contains chromium and other metals in alloy – chromium protects the surface so that it does not rust or stain but knives made of it do not take such a keen edge as those made of carbon steel. Some modern steels are stainless and sharpen reasonably well.

  [lron – French: fer German: Eisen Italian: ferro Spanish: hierro]

  ISINGLASS. Originally, an equivalent of *gelatine made from the swim bladders of sturgeon (Dutch: huysenblas, from huso, the beluga), though more recently the swim bladders of cod, ling, carp and other fish have been used. The swim bladders were removed from the sturgeon, washed in fresh water and hung to dry for a couple of days until it was possible to peel away the outer membrane. The bladders were then cut into strips. The best isinglass was in long staples, dull and hard. You may still sometimes see these dried strips, but in general the crude isinglass has been replaced by refined forms or by *gelatine. To use isinglass, it must be boiled until dissolved in an appropriate amount of water. The best will take a long time to dissolve completely – around a half hour. It is said to set a hundred times its weight of liquid, but isinglass varies in quality, and ordinarily you should allow a proportion by weight of 1 in 30, say 35 g to 1 It (or ¾ oz to 1 pt), but this depends on the stiffness of jelly that is required. Isinglass is also used for clarifying vinegar, wine and, particularly, beer. [Isinglass – French: colle de poisson German: Hausenblase, Fischleim Italian: colla di pesce Spanish: colapez, cola de pescado]

  j

  JACK BEAN or horse bean (Canavalia ensiformis) is a native of tropical America. A related species of large bean is the Sword bean or Sabre bean (Canavalia gladiata) from tropical areas of Asia. The two species are sufficiently similar to be confused, although the Sword bean has red, pink or brown seeds and the Jack has white ones. The pod of the Sword bean is curved like a sabre. Both beans are used green as vegetables. The Sword bean at least is also eaten ripe as a pulse, but ripe Jack beans may possibly be slightly poisonous.

  In India, both beans are known as bara sem. The plant is a perennial, and there is a dwarf variety for small gardens. Jack beans, under the name of Horse beans, are grown to a considerable extent in the southern parts of the US.

  JACK FRUIT or jak fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia). You are not likely to see this fruit unless you go to the tropics where it grows, as it is amongst the world’s largest fruits – weighing sometimes 40 kg (89 lb) – and not the sort of thing greengrocers would like to handle. lt is, however, available canned in syrup. As the immature fruit (as well as the flowers and seeds) are used in curries, some may well occasionally be exported from the growing areas. The tree belongs to the mulberry family (Moraceae) and to the same genus as the bread-fruit. The Jack tree is a native of the Western Ghats in India, but is today grown in most tropical countries, particularly in South East Asia, Brazil and parts of Africa.

  The enormous fruits are green and carried on short stems hanging strangely from the main trunk and large branches. There are two types of fruit, one with a firm, sweet meat and the other softer and more acid. There are also some wild relatives. The fruit should not be confused with the *durian.

  JACK-GO-TO-BED-AT-NOON. See salsify.

  JAGGERY or gur. Crude, dark sugar from India. The name is often used for palm sugar, but is also applicable to cane sugar. Jaggery has an aromatic, winey smell overlying the molasses smell of unrefined sugar. It may be sold very unhygienically in Indian bazaars, shaped into large, sticky balls the size of a coconut and sometimes wrapped in leaves. It looks unappetizing, but has a delicious taste and is an extremely important part of the flavouring of vegetarian curries. In India, it sweetens the hot milk that may be offered in hospitality when a traveller visits a village.

  JAK FRUIT. See jack fruit.

  JAMAICA FLOWER, roselle or red sorrel. The acid flower of a *mallow, Hibiscus sabdariffa is popular in Mexico as a basis for a refreshing drink, and in the form of a syrup for making punches. The flower is available dried, as dark red sepals, and tastes rather like *sumac water. The flower sepals should be put into a saucepan, boiled for three minutes and then left in a china jug for some hours, preferably overnight. The syrup is sugared and made to taste.

  JAMAICA PEPPER. See allspice.

  JAMBERRY. See physalis fruit.

  JAM, JELLY and MARMALADE. In British usage, jam is a conserve of fruit boiled with sugar, jelly is the juice only boiled with sugar, and the term marmalade is normally reserved for jams made from citrus fruits – orange, lemon, grapefruit, lime. A thick paste of boiled-down quinces was an early sweetmeat all round the Mediterranean and the term marmalade comes via French from the Portuguese marmelada which in turn comes from the word for quince, marmela. Quince and other fruit marmalades long preceded orange marmalade in English parlance; 16th and 17th century recipe books abound with recipes for marmalades, particularly quince.

  There are three basic problems in making jams. The first is making sure that it contains sufficient sugar to make it keep. Organisms cannot grow when the sugar percentage is over 50-55%. In early days, honey or the natural sugars in the fruits themselves were used, but today sugar is added to bring the content up to 50%.You can then add acid juice (e.g. lemon) if the jam is too sweet, or more sugar if the jam is too sour. However, as cane sugar will crystallize, there is an upper limit to the amount that can be added. The fact that the boiling point of water is raised by adding sugar makes it possible to know roughly what the concentration of sugar is by taking the temperature at any time. Jams are usually cooked until they reach 113°C (235°F). The old rule for jelly – 1 lb of sugar to 1 pt of juice (or 475 g of sugar to 600 ml of juice) – will, when the evaporation that takes place during boiling is allowed for, give a jelly that will keep.

  The second problem is whether the jelly or jam will set. Setting depends on the formation of a *pectin jelly, for which there must be sufficient pectin, sugar and acidity. Fruits lacking in pectin may be made to set by adding pectin extracted from citrus peel (one of the richest sources) or apples, and a similar result can be obtained by mixing in a pectin-rich fruit to make a compound jelly.

  The third problem is flavour. Many fruits lose flavour when they are boiled for a long time; some – like strawberries and raspberries – can hardly survive being boiled at all. Moreover, long boiling causes sugars to caramelize, which spoils the jam’s colour, and gives an underlying bitter caramel taste. To reduce the time jam is on the heat, the sugar is made hot before it is added to the fruit, or it is added as a syrup boiled to soft-ball stage – 116°C (240°F) – while added liquid is kept to a minimum. Because efficient heating of jam is so important, it is necessary to use pans of aluminium or untinned brass and copper. Iron pans cannot be used because of the acids in the fruit and enamel pans do not conduct heat fast enough and burn easily. Tin may melt.

&nbs
p; Although the British regard jam as something to be used in tarts or spread on bread, in the Middle East and the Balkans, as well as at times in France, it is something to be eaten as a sweetmeat with a spoon. In houses from Bulgaria to Egypt, and from Greece to Iran, you can experience those awful social arrivals when you sit stiffly in the best room and accept the offered token of hospitality, a glass of water and a spoon of incredibly sweet jam. That is the minimum. A cup of Turkish coffee usually goes with it. It is the equivalent of the biscuit and cup of tea, the brandy or sweet liqueur, the madeira and piece of cake. Nowadays the ritual offering is often replaced by a Coke.

  Jams are made of many things which would be unfamiliar at a vicarage tea-party. So we can have rose petal and orange flower jam, fig and date jam, jams made of whole green oranges and jam of chestnuts. One of the oddest is cabello de ángel (angel’s hair), a speciality of parts of Spain, a tasteless jam made from the ‘stringy bits’ surrounding the seeds of a special type of marrow bred to be almost all stringy bits and little use for anything else (though it is grown and sold in Britain as ‘spaghetti marrow’). The jam is much prized and is used in cakes, but few foreigners like it.

  [Jam – French: confiture German: Marmelade, Eingemachte Italian: marmellata, conserva di frutta Spanish: mermelada]