Early Greece

by Oswyn Murray

  XII LIFE STYLES: THE ARISTOCRACY

  There is no description of archaic culture to match that of Jacob Burckhardt Griechische Kulturgeschichte IV (1902) ch. 3; an English edition by Sheila Stern and myself is in preparation; see also A. Momigliano ‘Introduction to the Griechische Kulturges-chichte by Jacob Burckhardt’ Essays in Ancient and Modern Historiography 295–305; the general theory of culture as play in J. Huizinga Homo Ludens (Eng. tr. Routledge 1949) is clearly relevant to the archaic aristocracy. W. Donlan The Aristocratic Ideal in Ancient Greece (Coronado Press, Kansas 1980) is a useful survey of the literary evidence. On athletics see H. A. Harris Greek Athletes and Athletics (Hutchinson 1964) esp. chs. 4 and 5; Stephen G. Miller Arete: Greek Sports from Ancient Sources (2nd edn California U.P. 1991); for illustrations see V. Olivova Sports and Games in the Ancient World (Orbis 1984); for the origins and history of the Olympic Games see Wendy J. Raschke (ed) The Archaeology of the Olympics (Wisconsin U.P. 1988); C. Morgan Athletes and Oracles (Cambridge U.P. 1990). For Pindar and the victory ode see C.M. Bowra Pindar (Oxford U.P. 1964; rather old-fashioned but still useful); H. Fränkel Early Greek Poetry and Philosophy 425–504; E. L. Bundy *Studia Pindarica (California U.P. 1986, on the structure of the victory ode).

  The study of the symposion, already a major theme of this chapter in the first edition, has occupied me for much of the last ten years: see ‘The Greek symposion in history’ Tria Cor da: Scritti in onore de Arnaldo Momigliano ed. E. Gabba (Como 1983) 257–72, and the collection of essays edited by myself, Sympotica (Oxford U.P. 1990). The theme has become a major area of international collaboration, and important contributions have been made by French, German and Italian scholars. The best introduction to the art of the symposion is F. Lissarrague The Aesthetics of the Greek Banquet (Princeton U.P. 1990); the best account of civic and religious feasting is P. Schmitt Pantel La Cité au banquet: histoire des repas publics dans les cités grecques (Paris 1992). For historical reasons I have left the text much as it stood in the first edition, except that earlier I made much of the relationship between the symposion and funerary art; I now believe that a fundamental opposition exists between the symposion as symbol of the pleasures of life, and its absence beyond the grave; see ‘Death and the symposion’ Annali Istituto Orientate di Napoli 10 (1988) 239–57.

  Anacreon is discussed in Frankel ch. 6, and Bowra Greek Lyric Poetry ch. 7; there is a new edition with translation of his poetry by D. A. Campbell in the Loeb Greek Lyric ii. Greek sexual attitudes were explored in a scholarly way for the first time in the important study of K. J. Dover Greek Homosexuality (Duckworth 1978); Since then much has been written on this theme: see Michel Foucault The History of Sexuality: ii The Use of Pleasure (Penguin 1987); J.J. Winkler The Constraints of Desire (Rout-ledge 1990). On sculpture see Boardman Greek Sculpture: the Archaic Period (Thames and Hudson 1978).

  XIII LIFE STYLES: THE ECONOMY

  This chapter was written in conscious opposition to the prevailing orthodoxy, expressed in M. I. Finley The Ancient Economy (Chatto and Windus 1973). In my opinion the old controversy on the role of trade in early Greece, begun by J. Hasebroek Trade and Politics in Ancient Greece (Eng. tr. Bell I933). has been largely outmoded by archaeological discoveries and the changes in our conception of political history; it was well summed up by E. Will ‘Trois quarts de siècle de recherches sur l’économie grecque antique’ Annates 9 (1954) 7–22, and by M. I. Finley in 2e Conférence Internationale d’Histoire Economique I. Trade and Politics in the Ancient World (Mouton 1965) 11–35. There is a good factual account in Chester G. Starr The Economic and Social Growth of Early Greece 800–500 B.C.; but the facts should be related to two very different approaches, the modern economic analysis of Sir John Hicks A Theory of Economic History (Oxford U.P. 1969) chs. 3 and 4, and the anthropological concepts of Karl Polanyi Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies (Doubleday Anchor 1968) ed. G. Dal ton; on Polanyi, see S. C. Humphreys ‘History, economics and anthropology: the work of Karl Polanyi’ Anthropology and the Greeks (Routledge 1978) 31–75.

  On the agrarian economy and its diversity see two books by Robin Osborne, Demos: the Discovery of Classical Attika (Cambridge 1985) and Classical Landscape with Figures (George Philip 1987); also two chapters in The Greek City, O. Rackham ‘Ancient Landscapes’ 85–111, and L. Nixon and S. Price ‘The size and resources of Greek cities’ 137–170; for the importance of grazing animals see M. H. Jameson ‘Sacrifice and Animal Husbandry in Classical Greece’ Pastoral Economies in Classical Antiquity ed. C. R. Whittaker (Cambridge Philological Society Suppl. 14, 1988) 87–119. My use of the size and distribution of the Kleisthenic demes to determine population distribution and land use in Attica is of course only valid if the deme system was not subsequently changed before the fourth century. M. H. Hansen has argued for an early fourth century revision of the system in Hansen and others ‘The demography of the Attic demes: the evidence of the sepulchral inscriptions’ Analecta Romana 19 (1990) 25–44; I believe his argument must be mistaken, because the distribution of deme representation cannot reflect the population distribution of classical Athens. There is much of interest in Robert Sallares The Ecology of the Ancient Greek World (Duckworth 1991), despite my comments about studies centred on lowland food crops.

  On craftsmen see F.R. 3–4; also A. Burford Craftsmen in Greek and Roman Society (Thames & Hudson 1972). For Sostratos of Aegina see F. D. Harvey ‘Sostratos of Aegina’ Parola delPassato 31 (1976) 206–14, and A. W. Johnston ‘Trademarks on Greek Vases’ Greece and Rome 21 (1974) 138–52. ‘Ports of Trade in early societies’ are discussed in Polanyi pp. 238–60; on Gravisca see the report of the excavator, M. Torelli ‘Il santuario greco di Gravisca* Parola delPassato 32 (1977) 398–458. There are good accounts of Naucratis and the Greeks in Egypt in Boardman The Greeks Overseas ch. 4, and M. M. Austin Greece and Egypt in the Archaic Age (Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society Supplement 2,1970); see also T. Braun in CAH III 3 ch. 36b; on the artistic influence of Egypt see Boardman Greek Sculpture ch. 4.

  The impact of Greek and Etruscan trade on the west, and especially southern France, and the process of acculturation, are now major themes of study in France and Italy; English readers should see especially Peter S. Wells Culture Contact and Culture Change: Early Iron Age Central Europe and the Mediterranean World (Cambridge U.P. 1980); Barry Cunliffe Greeks, Romans and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction (Batsford 1988) chs. 1–3. The lead tablets from Emporion and Pech-Mao are published in Zeitschrift fiir Papyrologie und Epigraphik 68 (1987) 119–27, 72 (ig88) 100–2,77 (1989) 36–8 and Comptes-rendues de I’Academie des Inscriptions 1988 526–36.

  On barter and money see W. S. Jevons ‘Barter’ in Monetary Theory ed. R. W. Clower (Penguin 1969) 25–9; Polanyi ‘The semantics of money uses’ 175–203. E. S. G. Robinson established the new date for the invention of coinage in ‘The coins from the Ephesian Artemisium reconsidered’ Journal of Hellenic Studies 71 (1951) 156–67. Other important articles are R. M. Cook ‘Speculations on the origins of coinage’ Historia 7 (1958) 275–62, and C. M. Kraay ‘Hoards, small change and the origin of coinage’ Journal of Hellenic Studies 84 (1964) 76–91. C. M. Kraay CAHIV ch. 7d sums up the debate. On Greek slavery in general see Y. Garlan Slavery in Ancient Greece (Cornell U.P. 1988); on the absence of slavery in agriculture (a controversial topic) see E. M. Wood Peasant-Citizen and Slave (Verso 1988). For the figures given by Athenaeus see W. L. Westermann ‘Athenaeus and the slaves of Athens’ in Slavery in Classical Antiquity (Heifer 1960) ed. M. I. Finley 73–92. For public works in the sixth century see Chester G. Starr Economic and Social Growth 35–9; Lawrence Greek Architecture (F.R.9). There is a good general book on the oracular shrines, H. W. Parke Greek Oracles (Hutchinson 1967); see also A. D. Nock ‘Religious attitudes of the ancient Greeks’ Essays on Religion and the Ancient World (Oxford U.P. 1972) 534–50; C. R. Whittaker ‘The Delphic oracle: belief and behavior in ancient Greece-and Africa’ Harvard Theological Review 58 (1965) 21–47. For the politi
cal influence of Delphi see W. G. Forrest F.R.5, and ‘The first sacred war’ Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique 80 (1956) 33–52.

  XIV THE COMING OF THE PERSIANS

  For the history of Ionia see J. M. Cook The Greeks in Ionia and the East (Thames and Hudson 1962); G. L. Huxley The Early Ionians (Faber 1966). For the American excavations at Sardis from 1958 see G. M. A. Hanfmann Sardis (Harvard U.P. 1983). Relations between Lydia and the Ionians are discussed in A. R. Burn The Lyric Age of Greece (Arnold 1960) chs. 11 and 17.

  There are numerous books on early Greek philosophy; G. S. Kirk and J. E. Raven The Presocratic Philosophers (Cambridge U.P. 1957) contains the main texts with translations and discussion. The best brief introduction is E. L. Hussey The Presocratics (Duckworth 1972). For the problem of ‘origins’ see H. Frankfort (ed.) Before Philosophy (Pelican 1949); F. M. Cornford Principium Sapientiae: The Origins of Greek Philosophical Thought (Cambridge U.P. 1952); J-P. Vernant Les Origines de la Pensee Grecque (Presses Universitaires de France 1962). On more philosophical issues see G. E. R. Lloyd Polarity and Analogy: Two Types of Argument in early Greek Thought (Cambridge U.P. 1966); Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle (Chatto 1970) ch. 1–4; D. J. Furley and R. E. Allen (ed.) Studies in Presocratic Philosophy (2 vols. Routledge 1970 and 1975); J. Barnes The Presocratic Philosophers (2 vols. Routledge 1979).

  On the Persians see R. N. Frye The Heritage of Persia (Weidenfeld 1962). The Persepolis tablets are in process of publication: see R. T. Hallock ‘The evidence of the Persepolis tablets’, Cambridge History of Iran vol. 2. The fundamental discussion of the relations between Persia and her subject peoples is J. L. Myres ‘Persia, Greece and Israel’ Palestine Exploration Quarterly 1952 8–22; see in detail for Greece A. R. Burn Persia and the Greeks (Arnold 1962). For the Cyrus legend see Binder and myself (F.R. 9). For Ionians working at Persepolis as well as Susa see Fornara Documents nos. 45–6; for their influence on Persian monumental art see G. M. A. Richter ‘Greeks in Persia’ American Journal of Archaeology 50 (1946) 15–30; C. Nylander Ionians in Pasargadae: Studies in Old Persian Architecture (Uppsala U.P. 1970). There is an excellent book on the Persian imperial iconography by M. C. Root The King and Kingship in Achaemenid Art (Brill 1979). On the Ionian revolt see CAH IV ch. 8.

  XV THE LEADERSHIP OF GREECE: SPARTA AND ATHENS

  For Sparta see F.R. 10, and for the historical narrative Huxley Early Sparta ch. 5; Forrest A History of Sparta chs. 6 and 7. G. Dickins ‘The growth of Spartan policy’ Journal of Hellenic Studies 32(1912) 21–42 is important for foreign policy; the main evidence for the fall of Kleomenes is discussed in W. P. Wallace ‘Kleomenes, Marathon, the helots and Arkadia’ vol. 74 (1954) 32–5.

  For the Peisistratid tyranny see the chapters of A. Andrewes in the new CAH III ch. 44 and D. M. Lewis in CAH IV ch. 4; also M. Lang ‘The Murder of Hipparchus’ Historia 3 (1954–5) 395–407. For festivals and literature in sixth century Athens see J. M. Hurwit Art and Culture ch. 5; H. A. Shapiro Art and Cult under the Tyrants in Athens (Mainz 1989); J. Herington Poetry into Drama (California U.P. 1985) ch. 4. Peisistratid buildings are discussed in J. S. Boersma Athenian Building Policy from 561/0 to 405/4 B.C. (Groningen 1970) chs. 2–3; J. M. Camp Athenian Agora 39–48. But the most illuminating book of all for the society of archaic Athens is the publication by A. E. Raubitschek of the Dedications from the Athenian Akropolis (Archeological Institute of America 1949).

  For Kleisthenic democracy at Athens see in general H. T. Wade-Gery ‘The Laws of Kleisthenes’ Essays in Greek History 135–54; Hignett A History of the Athenian Constitution chs. 6–7; Forrest The Emergence of Greek Democracy chs. 8–9; D. Whitehead The Detnes of Attica 508/7-ca. 250 B.C. (Princeton U.P. 1986) ch. 1; M. Ostwald in CAH iv ch 5. The details of the reforms in relation to local government are discussed by A. Andrewes *‘Philochorus on phratries’ Journal of Hellenic Studies 81 (1961) 1–15; ‘Kleisthenes’ reform bill’ Classical Quarterly 27 (1977) 241–8; D. M. Lewis *‘Cleisthenes and Attica’ Historia 12 (1963) 22–40; J. S. Traill *The Political Organization of Attica (Hesperia Suppl. 14,1975). For the ideology behind the reforms see G. Vlastos *‘Isonomia’ American Journal of Philology 74 (1953) 337–66; M. Ostwald Nomos and the Beginnings of the Athenian Democracy (Oxford U.P. 1969) esp. part III. For the manipulation by Kleisthenes of older institutions see D. Roussel Tribu et Cité (Belles Lettres Paris 1976); and ‘Cities of Reason’ in The Greek City 12–16. On the definition of citizenship, see P. B. Manville The Origins of Citizenship in Ancient Athens (Princeton U.P. 1990.)

  The Marathon campaign, being simple, has often been taken as a test case for the reconstruction of ancient battles: see A. W. Gomme ‘Herodotus and Marathon’ More Essays in Greek History and Literature (Blackwell 1962) 29–37; W. K. Pritchett Marathon (California U.P. 1960); N. Whatley ‘On the possibility of reconstructing Marathon and other ancient battles’ Journal of Hellenic Studies 84 (1964) 119–39; N. G. L. Hammond ‘The campaign and the battle of Marathon’ Studies in Greek History (Oxford U.P. 1973) 170–250. The relation between Marathon and the Parthenon frieze is suggested by John Boardman ‘The Parthenon frieze – another view’ Festschrift fur Frank Brommer (P. von Zabern, Mainz 1977) 39–49.

  On ostracism there is an excellent brief account by E. Vanderpool Ostracism at Athens (Cincinnati U.P. 1970); for details up to 1967 see Meiggs and Lewis Greek Historical Inscriptions no. 21; for the German finds of 1967 there is still only the short reference of G. Daux in ‘Chronique des fouilles en Grece 1967’ Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique 92 (1968) 732–3.

  16 THE GREAT PERSIAN WAR

  There is an excellent detailed account of the Persian Wars in A. R. Burn Persia and the Greeks. On Herodotus’ access to Persian information see J. Wells. ‘The Persian friends of Herodotus’ Studies in Herodotus (Blackwell 1923) 95–111, and D. M. Lewis ‘Persians in Herodotus’ The Greek Historians: Papers presented to A. E. Raubitschek (Stanford 1985) 101–17; on the organization of the Greek alliance see P. A. Brunt ‘The Hellenic league against Persia’ Historia 2 (1953/4) 135–63. The main inscriptions are collected by Meiggs and Lewis Greek Historical Inscriptions nos. 23–8, and in translation by Fornara Documents nos. 51–60. On the Themistokles decree most of the important points for and against authenticity were made in two articles, the first publication by M. H. Jameson ‘A decree of Themistokles from Troizen’ Hesperia 29 (1960) 198–223 (still the best detailed commentary), and C. Habicht ‘Falsche Urkunden zur Geschichte Athens im Zeitalter der Perserkriege’ Hermes 89 (1961) 1–35 (relating the document to others known or thought to be fourth century forgeries). For Sicily see T. J. Dunbabin The Western Greeks (Oxford U.P. 1948); M. I. Finley Ancient Sicily to the Arab Conquest (Chatto 1968). The Persian War poetry of Simonides is collected in D. A. Campbell Greek Lyric Poetry iii 508–43; the new fragment is published in Oxyrhynchus Papyri 59 (1992) no. 3965.

  General Index

  The pagination of this electronic edition does not match the edition from which it was created. To locate a specific entry, please use your e-book reader’s search tools.

  For authors, inscriptions and sites see also Index of Sources

  Abu Simbel 97, 233

  acculturation 228

  Achaeans 263

  Adonis 86f

  Adriatic 104, 150

  Aegina 79, 151, 185, 193, 219, 224–6, 230, 238, 241, 287, 297

  Aeolic 11

  Aeschylus 283, 290

  agōge 173–80

  agōn 202

  agōra 56, 64, 102

  agrarian economy 221–3

  agriculture 42–5, 191f

  Agrigentum (Akragas) 114, 209, 242

  Ahuramazda 254f, 288

  aidōs 53

  Alalia (battle) 110, 252

  Alexander the Great 102, 217, 297

  Alkaios 20, 155–8, 207, 210, 232, 265

  Alkman 21, 92, 161, 171f, 186

  Alkmeonidai 26, 53, 199, 212, 219, 243, 244, 265, ch.XV

  alloglōssoi 232f

&nb
sp; alphabet 94 (see writing)

  Al Mina 95f, 146, 185, 228

  Alyattes of Lydia 246f

  Amasis 229, 235

  Amos 81, 90

  Amphidamas 18, 79

  Anakreon of Teos 211f

  Anaximandros (Anaximander) 21, 248–51

  Anaximenes 248, 250

  andrōn 208

  Androtion 30

  animal husbandry 44f, 64

  Antiochos of Syracuse 112

  aoidos 16, 55

  Aphrodite 86, 146, 156

  Apollo archēgetēs 113, 119–23

  arbitration 59f (see dikē, law)

  Arcadia 262, 267

  Arcado-Cypriot 11

  archaeology 11–5, 31–4

  Archilochos 19, 96, 106, 114, 117, 131, 210, 215

  archons, archon list (Athens) 29, 96, 195, 199

  Areopagus 185

  aretē 52, 133, 202

  Argos 29, 78, 80, 127, 153, 263, 265, 291

  Aristagoras 258, 266

  Aristeides 286

  aristocracy ch.III, 115, 141, ch.IX, 185, 199, chs.XII, XIV

  Aristophanes 27

  Aristotle 30, 141, 167, ch.X, 263, 269, 315

  Arkesilas cup I22f

  Artemis Orthia (shrine at Sparta) 130, 165, 178f

  Artemisium (battle) 293–7

  Aryans 253

  assembly 57f (see agora, demos)

  Assyrians 36, 70, 73, 128, 246

  Athenaeus 209, 315

  Athens 12, 41, 82, 102, 151, ch.XI, 222f, 238f, 242, ch.XV

  Attic pottery 33, 83–6, 198, 225, (see Geometric pottery)

  axones 183

  Babylon 88f, 157, 251f

  Bacchiadai 53, 146–50

  Bacchylides 205

  Barca 122

  basileus 38, chs.III–IV

  Battos 117–21

  Beazley, Sir John 33

  Black Corcyra 113