The Rise of Rome (Penguin Classics)

by Plutarch

  122. proconsul for the following year: In 209.

  123. Fabius Maximus: Consul again in 209.

  124. Sinuessa: Modern Mondragone.

  125. Publicius Bibulus: Gaius Publicius Bibulus, described by Livy (27.20) as Marcellus’ personal enemy.

  126. indictment … drawn up: This was not an actual indictment or trial; Bibulus had drafted a bill abrogating Marcellus’ command (Livy 27.20–21). Again, Plutarch contrives a parallel with Pelopidas (cf. note 112).

  127. consul for the fifth time: In 208.

  128. Honour … Valour: Honos and Virtus were closely linked in Roman sensibilities; honos was also the word for an elected office, like the consulship, and so these qualities encapsulated aristocratic excellence in Rome. Marcellus vowed this temple first at the battle of Clastidium and again at Syracuse. He attempted to fulfil his vow by restoring an existing temple of Honos and dedicating it to both Honos and Virtus. In the end, a separate chapel was added for Virtus and the completed temple was dedicated in 205 by Marcellus’ son. It was located outside the Porta Capena and decorated with artworks from Syracuse.

  129. that year was filled with prodigies: At Pelopidas 31 bad omens presage the death of Pelopidas.

  130. his colleague: Titus Quinctius Crispinus.

  131. Bantia … Venusia: Modern Banzi and Venosa.

  132. Epizephyrian Locrians: The people of Locri Epizephyrii (modern Gerace), in southern Italy, who had defected to Hannibal in 214.

  133. Petelia: Modern Strongoli, a city that remained loyal to Rome during the Second Punic War. These troops were not Marcellus’: they had been dispatched from Tarentum (Livy 27.26).

  134. ‘not fire … hinder fate’: A fragment of Pindar from an unknown work, fr. 232 in W. H. Race, Pindar, vol. 2 (1997).

  135. his son: Marcus Claudius Marcellus, the future consul of 196.

  136. Fregellae: A Roman colony established in 328 on a site near modern Ceprano.

  137. removed his signet ring: Hannibal took the ring in order to forge letters under Marcellus’ name, but his plan was foiled by Crispinus (Livy 27.28).

  138. This … is the account … ceremony: Valerius Maximus (6.1.external 6) reports that Hannibal gave Marcellus an honourable funeral, and Livy’s account (27.28), though briefer, is similar. Nepos’ biography of Marcellus is lost, as is Augustus’ funeral oration for his nephew and son-in-law, Marcus Claudius Marcellus (see below).

  139. Cabiri in Samothrace: At Samothrace there was a famous Panhellenic sanctuary devoted to the Great Gods, who included divinities known as the Cabiri. The Cabiri, whose precise identities remained mysterious even in antiquity, were also worshipped in shrines elsewhere in Greece, including Plutarch’s Boeotia (Aemilius Paullus 23); see H. Bowden, Mystery Cults of the Ancient World (2010), pp. 49–67.

  140. Lindus: A major Rhodian city and the site of an important cult of Athena.

  141. that Marcellus: Marcus Claudius Marcellus, born in 42 BC, was the son of Augustus’ sister, Octavia, and Gaius Claudius Marcellus, consul of 50 BC. He was favoured by Augustus, married his daughter Julia and was widely viewed as his successor. He died while holding the office of aedile in 23 BC, an event commemorated by Virgil (Aeneid 6.860–66) and Propertius (3.18).

  142. dedicated a library … theatre: The Library of Marcellus was part of the Portico of Octavia; it burned down in AD 79 but was restored by Domitian (Suetonius, Domitian 20). The nearby Theatre of Marcellus, a structure begun by Julius Caesar, was completed by Augustus and named for his nephew (and still stands). The Hellenic quality of these two constructions – a library and a theatre – reprise Marcellus’ introduction of Greek material culture (and its related values) to Rome. Plutarch often adduces a hero’s descendants to give a positive finish to a Life (Pelling, P&H, p. 369).

  Notes to the Comparison of Pelopidas and Marcellus

  1. Marcellus … massacred their populations: Unlike the Life itself, where Marcellus’ justice and mercy are emphasized (e.g. ch. 20), in the Comparison Plutarch allows that Marcellus could exhibit cruelty.

  2. treated the Orchomenians as they did: In 364, after the deaths of Epaminondas and Pelopidas, the Thebans defeated and sacked the city of Orchomenus (Diodorus 15.79.3–6).

  3. slain by the tyrant: In 364 Pelopidas fell in battle against Alexander of Pherae, although the outcome of the battle was a victory for Thebes (Introduction and Pelopidas 32).

  4. battles of Leuctra and Tegyra: See Introduction.

  5. put an end to the tyrants of Thebes: In 379/8 Pelopidas staged a coup d’état that liberated Thebes; the exciting and colourful story is told at Pelopidas 7–11.

  6. Polybius, Hannibal … he confronted Scipio: On Polybius’ hostility towards Marcellus, see Introduction. The victory of Scipio Africanus at Zama was decisive in the Second Punic War, but Polybius seems to go to some trouble to underline Africanus’ distinctive achievement on account of his friendship with Scipio Aemilianus, who, through adoption, was Africanus’ grandson.

  7. Livy … Juba: On Plutarch’s sources see Introduction. Caesar, here, refers to Augustus. In his Life of Hannibal (5.4), Nepos claims that the man was never defeated in Italy, but he may have put forward a different version in his (now lost) Life of Marcellus.

  8. Eurotas: Sparta was located on the west bank of the Eurotas (modern Evrotas), and, until the Thebans managed it, no one in the Greek world had imagined that any hostile force could actually penetrate the Spartans’ own borders. However, it was Pelopidas and Epaminondas together who led the Theban army into Spartan territory, as Plutarch makes clear at Pelopidas 24.

  9. credited to Epaminondas: At the battle of Leuctra, Epaminondas was in command, while Pelopidas, who led the Sacred Band (Introduction to Marcellus, note 13), was his subordinate. At Pelopidas 23, however, Plutarch insists that they shared in the glory of the Thebans’ victory.

  10. Chrysantes in The Education of Cyrus: Plutarch refers to Xenophon, Education of Cyrus 4.1.3.

  11. to seek vengeance: Alexander of Pherae had previously captured, imprisoned and mistreated Pelopidas (Pelopidas 27–9).

  12. ‘if he must die … valorously’: From an unknown tragedy: see fr. 994 in Collard and Cropp, Euripides: Fragments, vol. 2.

  13. buried by his allies: Pelopidas 33–4.

  ARATUS

  Further Reading

  Aratus has mostly been studied as a source for the history of the period it covers. There is a useful commentary in Italian (mostly historical in its focus) by M. Manfredini and D. P. Orsi, Le vite di Arato e di Artaserse (1987). Still worth consulting, though in many respects dated, is the commentary by W. H. Porter, Plutarch’s Life of Aratus (1937). Important aspects of characterization in Aratus are briefly discussed by Pelling, P&H, pp. 288–91. There is an excellent biography of Aratus by F. W. Walbank, Aratos of Sicyon (1933). The larger historical background to this Life is covered by J. A. O. Larsen, Greek Federal States: Their Institutions and History (1968), and F. W. Walbank, ‘Macedonia and Greece’ and ‘Macedonia and the Greek Leagues’, in CAH vii.1 (1984), pp. 221–56 and 446–81. For the history of Sicyon, the most recent treatment is Y. A. Lolos, Land of Sikyon: Archaeology and History of a Greek City-State (2011). C. B. Champion, Cultural Politics in Polybius’s Histories (2004), especially pp. 122–43, examines Polybius’ representation of the Achaean League, which lies in the background of Plutarch’s narrative here.

  Notes to the Introduction to Aratus

  1. The basic account remains Larsen, Greek Federal States: Their Institutions and History. See also Walbank in CAH vii.1, pp. 221–56 and 446–81.

  2. See the examination of the Aetolian League by J. B. Scholten, The Politics of Plunder: Aitolians and their Koinon in the Early Hellenistic Era, 279–218 BC (2000).

  3. Polybius (2.40.2) describes Aratus as ‘the originator and creator’ of the league.

  4. See A. Griffin, Sikyon (1982), p. 81.

  5. The details of the Achaean League’s constitution are uncertain: see Walbank, Commentary, vol.
3, pp. 406–14.

  6. Walbank in CAH vii.1, pp. 247–48, puts these attacks after Aratus’ voyage to Egypt, which he dates to 251/50, in which case Aratus could have been fighting a Macedonian garrison on behalf of Egypt (although Plutarch’s narrative at the very least suggests a longer passage of time between the liberation of Sicyon and Aratus’ journey to Ptolemy II).

  7. Cleomenes III (c. 260–222), whose career and revolutionary designs are the subject of Plutarch’s Cleomenes. See P. Cartledge and A. Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta: A Tale of Two Cities (2nd edn, 2002), pp. 49–58.

  8. This was the advice of Demetrius of Pharus, by now Philip’s closest adviser (Polybius 5.101.7). Modern scholars divide over whether this was Philip’s real motive in concluding the Social War: see A. M. Eckstein, Rome Enters the Greek East: From Anarchy to Hierarchy in the Hellenistic Mediterranean, 230–170 BC (2008), pp. 78–83.

  9. See R. M. Errington in CAH viii (1989), pp. 94–106; Eckstein, Rome Enters the Greek East, pp. 78–91.

  10. Plutarch’s Artaxerxes is also a solitary biography, on which see J. Mossman in Humble, Plutarch’s Lives, pp. 145–68.

  11. The prestige associated in imperial times with having distinguished ancestors from the classical past is discussed by C. Jones in T. Whitmarsh (ed.), Local Knowledge and Microidentities in the Imperial Greek World (2010), pp. 111–24.

  12. See General Introduction II and Moralia 814b–c.

  13. This important point is made and elaborated by A. Wardman, Plutarch’s Lives (1974), pp. 40–41.

  14. Does the youthfulness of Plutarch’s audience also help to explain his (perhaps amusingly) graphic discussion of the symptoms of Aratus’ alleged cowardice at ch. 29?

  15. Plutarch often stresses the importance of a sound Greek education (or, more often, the effect of its absence) in his assessment of the character of his Roman heroes (General Introduction III), but education is equally important in the development of his Greek heroes: see Duff, Plutarch’s Lives, pp. 74–8. Although Aratus received a liberal education (ch. 3), he did not go far enough in his philosophical studies. In this he was like Pelopidas (Pelopidas 4) and Philopoemen (Philopoemen 4), who studied philosophy too selectively.

  16. On Plutarch’s characterization of Aratus and its didactic function in this Life, see Pelling, P&H, pp. 288–91.

  17. Cf. Plutarch’s verdict on Aratus’ liberation of Corinth at ch. 16: ‘Aratus’ success surpassed theirs [i.e. Pelopidas’ and Thrasybulus’] in that he acted, not against fellow-Greeks, but against a foreign and alien power.’

  18. Sources for the career of Aratus are reviewed by Walbank, Aratos of Sicyon, pp. 3–21.

  19. See G. Marasco in G. Marasco (ed.), Political Autobiographies and Memoirs in Antiquity (2011), pp. 104–17.

  20. Polybius 2.40.2, 24.6.5, 28.6.9, 28.13.9–13, 29.24.1–8 and 30.13.32.

  21. Polybius 2.37–80 (the rise of the Achaean League to the end of the Cleomenean War); 4.3–37, 4.57–87, 5.1–30 and 5.91–105 (the Social War); 8.12 (death of Aratus).

  22. On Phylarchus, see FGrH 81; T. W. Africa, Phylarchus and the Spartan Revolution (1961); and especially P. Pédech, Trois historiens méconnus: Théopompe, Duris, Phylarque (1989), pp. 391–493.

  23. See FGrH 306.

  Notes to the Life of Aratus

  1. Polycrates: A descendant of Aratus, probably identical with the local dignitary Tiberius Claudius Polycrates (Syll. 846); Plutarch also mentions him at Moralia 409c and 667c–671b.

  2. Chrysippus: (c. 280–206) An influential Stoic philosopher, whom Plutarch cites frequently in his Moralia.

  3. Dionysodorus of Troezen: A grammarian who flourished in the second half of the third century BC; among other interests, he was a student of proverbs. Troezen (modern Trizina) was a city in the northeast Peloponnese.

  4. ‘Who will praise … sons?’: Cicero cites the opening words of this proverb at Letters to Atticus 1.19.10.

  5. ‘exhibits … of his forefathers’: Slightly adapted from Pindar, Pythian Odes 8.43–4.

  6. mark of a man … superior to everyone else: Plutarch remarks on this baleful effect of self-love (philautia) at Moralia 471d (see also 468e).

  7. Sicyon’s … constitution … demagogues: Sicyon was ruled by tyrants during its early history, but in 417 Sparta imposed an oligarchy (Thucydides 5.81.2), which was itself replaced in the 360s by a short-lived democracy that later sources regarded unfavourably (Diodorus 15.70.3; Xenophon, A History of My Times 7.1.44–7.3.12); thereafter Sicyon reverted to tyranny. See Griffin, Sikyon, pp. 40–81.

  8. Cleon: The tyrant was assassinated in 275 or 274.

  9. Timocleides and Cleinias … chief magistrates: The chief magistracy in Sicyon was that of general (strategos). A different version of events is reported by Pausanias (2.8.2).

  10. murdered Cleinias: In 264.

  11. Argos: About 25 miles (40 km) south of Sicyon.

  12. hatred of tyrants: At this time, however, Argos, too, was ruled by a tyrant, either by Aristippus or his son Aristomachus (ch. 25), who was certainly tyrant by 249.

  13. pentathlon: The ancient pentathlon comprised the long jump, javelin throw, discus throw, sprint and wrestling. Aratus also won a chariot race at Olympia (Pausanias 6.12.5).

  14. exercise with a mattock: This form of exercise is also mentioned by Athenaeus (518d).

  15. insufficiently diligent … political affairs: Polybius (4.8.2), however, describes Aratus as a good speaker.

  16. Memoirs: See Introduction.

  17. Abantidas … assassinated: At the end of 252 or the beginning of 251.

  18. Deinias: Possibly Deinias of Argos, a Greek historian (ch. 29).

  19. Aristotle the dialectician: Nothing further is known of him.

  20. Periander: Tyrant in Corinth from c. 627 to 587, known both for cruelty and wisdom.

  21. Orontes: Probably a Persian satrap, but the name is too common for a specific identification.

  22. Alcmaeon, the son of Amphiaraus: These are mythological figures. Amphiaraus was one of the Seven against Thebes and met his death betrayed by his wife; their son was therefore obliged to kill his mother and was subsequently tortured by the Furies until he was ritually purified.

  23. Myrsilus: Myrsilus of Methymna flourished around 250. He wrote a history of Lesbos and Historical Paradoxes, a (now lost) collection of unexpected or unbelievable occurrences.

  24. during which time … plans against it: This is our only reference to Aetolian aggression against Nicocle. On the Aetolians see Introduction.

  25. the kings … friends and hosts: Important individuals in different cities or states often enjoyed a relationship, known as xenia or guest-friendship, whereby they looked after one another’s interests in their respective communities. Although the relationship was strictly voluntary, it tended to extend from one generation to the next. Cleinias had been the guest-friend of both the king of Macedon and the king of Egypt.

  26. Antigonus: This is Antigonus Gonatas (c. 320–239), the king of Macedon.

  27. Ptolemy: Ptolemy II Philadelphus (308–246), the king of Egypt.

  28. Aristomachus: Nothing more is known of him, unless he is the Sicyonian Aristomachus mentioned in Syll. 458.

  29. Ecdelus: (sometimes called Ecdemus) Helped to liberate Megalopolis from tyranny and Cyrene to form a new constitution (Polybius 10.22.2, Pausanias 8.49.2). He was a teacher of Philopoemen (Philopoemen 1).

  30. Arcadian: A person from Arcadia, the central region of the Peloponnese, where a distinct dialect of Greek was spoken.

  31. Megalopolis: An Arcadian city (modern Megalopoli) in the central Peloponnese which was founded in the fourth century BC and soon became the largest of the Arcadian cities. Ultimately it was the leading city in the Achaean League (see Philopoemen).

  32. Arcesilaus the Academic: Arcesilaus of Pitane (315–241) was a Platonist who became head of the Academy around 260. Sceptical in inclination, he was the founder of the Middle Academy.

  33. one of the exi
les: Plutarch includes in his account the names of several otherwise unknown Sicyonians, whose role in liberating their city was no doubt mentioned in Aratus’ Memoirs.

  34. steal the king’s horses: Unless Aratus’ story was false in every particular, Antigonus Gonatas apparently maintained prized horses in Sicyon, which was famous for the quality of its grazing land; see Griffin, Sikyon, p. 30.

  35. tower of Polygnotus: Its location is unknown but presumably it lay to the north of Argos, on the road to Nemea, which was about halfway between Argos and Sicyon.

  36. Ecdelus: See ch. 5.

  37. Technon: Aratus’ slave (ch. 5).

  38. his friends: Naturally Aratus still had friends resident in Sicyon.

  39. as far away as Corinth: The distance between the two cities is nearly 10 miles (16 km).

  40. the event … civil bloodshed: Aratus liberated Sicyon in 251. The nature of his political authority after the liberation of Sicyon is unclear in our sources. Strabo (8.382) calls him both liberator and tyrant.

  41. Antigonus … regained: Whether or not Antigonus Gonatas regarded Nicocles as his agent in Sicyon is a topic that divides scholars. In any case, at the time of Sicyon’s liberation he sent Aratus a gift of 25 talents (ch. 11).

  42. former farms … strife and faction: The restored exiles were in conflict with the current holders of their properties, who were naturally unwilling to relinquish them.

  43. Sicyon joined the Achaean League: This happened in 251.

  44. Achaean League … nor great power: Polybius (2.38–42) provides a brief history of the Achaeans and their league; see Introduction. The Dorians were one of the major ethnicities into which the Greeks were divided; the Achaeans were another.

  45. In his very nature … opportunities: A similar sketch of Aratus’ character is offered by Polybius (4.8); see also ch. 29.

  46. events … in the open … heralds: That is, in open warfare; a formal state of war was announced by a herald.