Shark

by David Owen

  22 ibid.

  23 , accessed 16 June 2007.

  24 , accessed 28 June 2008.

  25 , accessed 5 December 2008.

  26 , accessed 30 June 2007.

  27 , accessed 1 July 2007.

  28 , accessed 30 June 2007.

  29 Lubbock, H.R. and Edwards, A.J. (1982), ‘The shark population of Saint Paul’s Rocks’, Copeia, vol. 1982, no. 1, p. 223.

  30 Lubbock, H.R. and Edwards, A.J. (1981), ‘The fishes of Saint Paul’s Rocks’, Journal of Fish Biology, vol. 18, issue 2, pp. 135–57.

  31 Feitoza, M., et al. (2003), ‘Reef fishes of St Paul’s Rocks: New records and notes on biology and zoogeography’, Aqua, Journal of Icthyology and Aquatic Biology, vol. 7, no. 2, p. 67.

  32 ibid.

  33 , accessed 30 June 2007.

  34 , accessed 30 June 2007.

  35 Carey, F.G. and Scharold, J.V. (1990), ‘Movements of blue sharks (Prionace glauca) in depth and course’, Marine Biology, vol. 106, p. 330.

  36 Stevens, John D., personal communication to the author, 3 September 2008.

  37 , accessed 5 December 2008.

  38 , accessed 2 July 2007. See also .

  39 , accessed 5 May 2007.

  40 , accessed 4 July 2007.

  41 , accessed 4 July 2007.

  42 Last and Stevens, op. cit., pp. 270, 274.

  43 Kajiura, Stephen M. and Holland, Kim N. (2002), ‘Electroreception in juvenile scalloped hammerhead and sandbar sharks’, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 205, p. 3609.

  44 ibid.

  45 Phillips, Kathryn (2002), ‘How the shark got its hammer head’, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 205, p. 2304.

  46 Mojetta, Angelo (1997), Sharks: History and biology of the lords of the sea, Shrewsbury: Swan Hill Press, p. 42.

  47 , accessed 6 July 2007.

  48 Simpfendorfer, Colin (1992), ‘Biology of tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) caught by the Queensland shark meshing program off Townsville, Australia’, The Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, vol. 43, pp. 39–40.

  49 , accessed 10 July 2007.

  50 , accessed 1 June 2008.

  51 , accessed 1 July 2007; Abstract of article by M.R. Heithaus, et al. (2002), ‘Habitat use and foraging behavior of tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) in a seagrass ecosystem’, Marine Biology, vol. 140, no. 2, pp. 237–48.

  52 , accessed 16 June 2007.

  53 , accessed 5 December 2008.

  54 Last and Stevens, op. cit., p. 131.

  55 , accessed 1 December 2008.

  56 Huveneers, Charlie (2006), ‘Redescription of two species of wobbegongs (Chondrichthyes: Orectolobidae) with elevation of Orectolobus halei Whitley 1940 to species level’, Zootaxa, vol. 1284, p. 29.

  57 , accessed 10 June 2007.

  58 , accessed 1 December 2008.

  59 , accessed 20 June 2007.

  60 Daley, R.K., et al. (2002), Field Guide to Australian Sharks and Rays, Collingwood: CSIRO Publishing, p. 32.

  61 Dudgeon, Christine L. (2005), ‘The ecology of the leopard shark Stegostoma fasciatum’, in Proceedings of the Inaugural Southern Queensland Elasmobranch Research Forum, Brisbane: University of Queensland, Faculty of Biological and Chemical Sciences, p. 3.

  62 Stead, David G., Sharks and Rays of Australian Seas, Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1963, p. 51.

  63 , accessed 22 July 2007.

  64 The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay With an Account of the Establishment of the Colonies of Port Jackson and Norfolk Island, 1789, Chapter XV.

  65 , accessed 2 May 2007.

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  72 Last and Stevens, op. cit., p. 153.

  73 , accessed 2 July 2007.

  74 , accessed 2 July 2007.

  75 The Mercury, 10 July 2006, p. 18.

  76 Steel, Rodney (1992), Sharks of the World, London: Blandford Press, p. 131.

  77 Sims, David W., et al. (2000), ‘Annual social behaviour of basking sharks associated with coastal front areas’, in Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, London: The Royal Society, vol. 267, pp. 1897–1904.

  78 Sims, David W., et al. (2005), ‘Habitat-specific normal and reverse diel vertical migration in the plankton-feeding basking shark’, Journal of Animal Ecology, vol. 74, p. 760.

  79 Shuker, Karl P.N., ‘Bring me the head of the sea serpent’, quoted in , accessed 15 July 2007.

  80 Douady, Christophe J., et al. (2003), ‘Molecular phylogenetic evidence refuting the hypothesis of Batoidea (rays and skates) as derived sharks’, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, vol. 26, p. 215.

  81 In September 2004 the Shark Specialist Workshop of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) conducted a batoid workshop in Cape Town, South Africa, attended by 29 chondrichthyan fish experts from fifteen countries.

  82 Dean, Mason M., Wilga, Cheryl D. and Summers, Adam P. (2005), ‘Eating without hands or tongue: specialization, elaboration and the evolution of prey processing mechanisms in cartilaginous fishes’, in Biology Letters, vol. 1, no. 3, London: The Royal Society, p. 357.

  83 Hamlett, William C. (1999), Sharks, Skates, and Rays, Baltimore MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 29.

  84 Daley, R.K., et al. (2002), Field Guide to Australian Sharks and Rays, Hobart: CSIRO Australia, p. 39.

  85 Hamlett, op. cit., p. 485.

  86 Last, Peter R. (2004), ‘Rhinobatos sainsburyi n. sp. and Aptychotrema timorensis n. sp.—Two new shovelnose rays (Batoidea: Rhinobatidae) from the Eastern Indian Ocean’, Records of the Australian Museum, vol. 56, pp. 201–8.

  87 , accessed 20 July 2007.

  88 , accessed 14 December 2008.

  89 , accessed 25 July 2007. The quotation is taken from the abstract of a paper delivered by Vicente Faria and Matthew McDavitt to the American Elasmobranch Society’s 2005 Annual Meeti
ng in Tampa, Florida. The paper is entitled ‘Trying again two centuries later: An essay on the various species of sawfish’.

  90 , accessed 20 June 2007.

  91 Le Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle in Paris has inaugurated an Odontobase Project, run by Pascal P. Deynat.

  92 , accessed 26 July 2007.

  93 Last and Stevens, op. cit., p. xx.

  94 Skjaeraasen, J.E. and Bergstad, O.A. (2001), ‘Notes on the distribution and length composition of Raja lintea, R. fyllae, R. hyperborean and Bathyraja spinicauda (Pisces: Rajidae) in the deep northeastern North Sea and on the slope of the eastern Norwegian Sea’, ICES Journal of Marine Science, vol. 58, pp. 21–8.

  95 , accessed 1 August 2007.

  96 Last, Peter R. and Gledhill, Daniel (2007), ‘The maugean skate, Zearaja maugeana sp. nov. (Rajiformes: Rajidae)—A micro-endemic, Gondwanan relict from Tasmanian estuaries’, Zootaxa, vol. 1494. A fuller version of this description first appeared in Tasmanian Life, May–June 2008, p. 97.

  97 , accessed 24 July 2007.

  98 Last and Stevens, op. cit., p. 370.

  99 Kyne, Peter M. and Simpfendorfer, Colin A. (2007), ‘A collation and summarization of available data on deepwater chondrichthyans: Biodiversity, life history and fisheries. A report prepared by the IUCN SSC Shark Specialist Group for the Marine Conservation Biology Institute’, Bellevue: Washington, p. 88.

  100 Last, Peter R. and Compagno, Leonard J.V. (1999), ‘Urolophidae: Stingarees’, in Kent E. Carpenter and Volker H. Niem, FAO Species Identification Guide for Fishery Purposes: The Living Marine Resources of the Western Central Pacific, Volume 3: Batoid Fishes, Chimaeras and Bony Fishes Part 1 (Elopidae to Linophrynidae), Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, p. 1469.

  101 Schwartz, Frank J. (2007), ‘Tail spine characteristics of stingrays (Order Myliobatiformes) frequenting the FAO Fishing area (20ºN 120ºE—50ºN 150ºE) of the Northwest Pacific Ocean’, The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, supplement no. 14, pp. 121–30.

  102 , accessed 31 August 2007.

  103 , accessed 31 August 2007.

  104 , accessed 31 August 2007.

  105 , accessed 10 December 2008.

  106 , accessed 10 June 2007.

  7. ‘An Incredibly Bountiful Crop’: Shark Exploitation

  1 McCormick, Harold W. and Allen, Tom, with Young, Captain William E. (1963), Shadows in the Sea: The sharks, skates and rays, London: Sidgwick & Jackson, p. 169.

  2 Lack, Mary and Sant, Glenn (2006), ‘World shark catch, production & trade 1990–2003’, TRAFFIC Oceania [supported by the] Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage, p. 4.

  3 Kyne, Peter M. and Simpfendorfer, Colin A. (2007), ‘A collation and summarization of available data on deepwater chondrichthyans: Biodiversity, life history and fisheries. A report prepared by the IUCN SSC Shark Specialist Group for the Marine Conservation Biology Institute’, Bellevue: Washington, p. 4, available at , accessed 11 August 2007.

  4 Mitchell, Selina and Wilson, Lauren (2007), ‘Fish bans raise food poison risk’, Weekend Australian, 4–5 August, p. 1.

  5 ibid. Mitchell and Wilson are quoting Dr Peter Collignon, Infectious Diseases Unit, Canberra Hospital.

  6 , accessed 14 September 2008.

  7 Lack and Sant, op. cit., pp. 7, 9.

  8 , accessed 1 June 2007.

  9 , accessed 1 June 2007. Fathom is an online education program conducted by the Natural History Museum, London.

  10 Murphy, Damien (2006), ‘Flaky renaming fails to net shark diners’, Sydney Morning Herald, 14 January, , accessed 1 August 2008.

  11 Vannuccini, Stefania (1999), Shark Utilization, Marketing and Trade, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 389, Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, see , accessed 15 April 2008.

  12 Sample, Ian (2006), ‘Sharks pay price for human tastes’, Guardian Weekly, 8–14 September, p. 19.

  13 Clarke, S. (2004), Shark Product Trade in Hong Kong and Mainland China and Implementation of the CITES Shark Listings, Hong Kong: TRAFFIC East Asia, p. 15.

  14 Taxin, Amy (2003), ‘“Finning” threatens Galapagos sharks’, CDNN Eco News, , accessed 27 December 2005. See also , accessed 10 December 2008.

  15 Clarke, Shelley C., et al. (2006), ‘Global estimates of shark catches using trade records from commercial markets’, Ecology Letters 9, pp. 1120 and 1122.

  16 ibid., p. 1122.

  17 , accessed 4 August 2007. Lifetime Health is an Australian health website. Its squalene products are marketed with the official Australian Made logo and it states that its oil is from bycatch, not targeted species.

  18 Vannuccini, Stefania, op. cit., Section 6.4.2.

  19 Gilman, Eric, et al. (2007), Shark depredation and unwanted bycatch in pelagic longline fisheries: Industry practices and attitudes, and shark avoidance strategies 2007, Honolulu: Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council, p. viii.

  20 Bevilaqua, Simon (2006), ‘Submerged treasures’, Sunday Tasmanian, 19 February, p. 11. Bevilaqua is quoting Humane Society International spokesman Michael Kennedy.

  21 , accessed 1 August 2007.

  22 , accessed 1 August 2007.

  23 White, T.W., et al. (2006), Economically Important Sharks and Rays of Indonesia, Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, p. 1.

  8. Shark Conservation: Problems, Solutions

  1 Casey, Susan (2005), The Devil’s Teeth: A true story of obsession and survival among America’s great white sharks, New York: Henry Holt & Co., p. 3.

  2 Richardson, Michael (2005), ‘The fished-out planet’, The Age, 27 December, p. 11.

  3 ibid.

  4 , accessed 30 December 2005. Bite-Back is a shark and marine conservation organisation.

  5 Compagno, Leonardo J.V. (2000), ‘Sharks, fisheries and biodiversity’, paper presented at the Pacific Fisheries Coalition Shark Conference 2000, Honolulu, Hawaii, 21–24 February, available online at , accessed 17 June 2007.

  6 , accessed 6 August 2007. The Shark Foundation is a Zurich-based shark conservation organisation.

  7 ‘Shark exploitation in Ghana hastens global collapse’, ENS Release 27 August 2001, available online at , accessed 6 August 2007.

  8 Baum, Julia K., et al. (2003), ‘Collapse and conservation of shark populations in the Northwest Atlantic’, Science, vol. 299, no. 5605, p. 390.

  9 , accessed 6 August 2007.

  10 , accessed 6 August 2007.

  11 IUCN News Release, 22 February 2007, available online at , accessed 1 August 2007.

  12 The Shark Foundation, , accessed 6 August 2007.

&nbs
p; 13 Pepperell, Julian (2005), ‘Release of sharks in recreational fisheries’, Shark Bay Seaweek 2005–Save Our Sharks, , accessed 5 August 2007.

  14 , accessed 10 August 2007.

  15 ibid.

  16 Kyne, Peter M. and Simpfendorfer, Colin A. (2007), A Collation and Summarization of Available Data on Deepwater Chondrichthyans: Biodiversity, life history and fisheries, Report prepared by the IUCN SSC Shark Specialist Group for the Marine Conservation Biology Institute, p. 4, available at , accessed 11 August 2007.

  17 Stevens, John D., personal communication with the author, 3 September 2008.

  18 Bonfil, Ramon, et al. (2005), ‘Transoceanic migration, spatial dynamics, and population linkages of white sharks’, Science, vol. 310, p. 100.

  19 The areas concerned are: Northeast Atlantic; Mediterranean; West Africa; Sub-equatorial Africa; Northwest Atlantic; Central America and Caribbean; Indian Ocean; Australasia and Oceania; Southeast Asia; Northwest Pacific; and Northeast Pacific. See also .

  20 , accessed 11 August 2007.

  21 , accessed 11 August 2007.

  22 Rose, Cassandra (2002), ‘Recreational shark catch in Australia’, in The Australian Shark Assessment Report for the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks, Canberra: Commonwealth Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, p. 1.

  23 Shark Advisory Group and Lack, Mary (2004), National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark-plan), Canberra: Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, p. 3.

  24 Hareide, N.R.J., et al. (2007), European Shark Fisheries: A preliminary investigation into fisheries, conversion factors, trade products, markets and management measures, Newbury: European Elasmobranch Association, p. 53.

  25 , accessed 14 August 2007.

  26 ibid.

  27 , accessed 15 July 2007.