When Montezuma Met Cortes
Page 59
12.“Latin as elegant”: CDII, II: 149–50 (also quoted in Gruzinski 2002: 94). San Francisco: In the Sutro Library: Mathes (1985) details the fascinating story of how the Tlatelolco library prospered and suffered, by turns, with volumes lost with every move and disaster, yet surviving to a miraculous degree (including escaping the 1906 San Francisco earthquake). I am most grateful to Sutro librarian Angelica Illueca for generously sharing the collection with me in July 2014.
13.Carochi (2001 [1645]: 253).
14.“Mexico City Idealized,” in the Gallery, is the front of the biombo, showing the city Spaniards made on that site, albeit in a somewhat idealized and sanitized form. Although many of these buildings can still be seen in downtown Mexico City today, this midcolonial metropolis is closer to the Tenochtitlan with which it merged and which it submerged—with its midlake location, dominant central plaza, canals, aqueduct, and the Franciscan complex in the foreground on one of the main sites of Montezuma’s zoo. The screen’s reverse side portrays the “Conquest of Mexico,” in the form of a stylized view of Tenochtitlan highlighting where nine events took place during the war. The full map is reproduced to varying degrees of utility, with brief discussion, in Kagan (2000: 153–59); Rivero Borrell M. et al. (2002: 83–87); Schreffler (2007: 22–24); Terraciano (2011: 76–77); Alcalá and Brown (2014: 113–15). I am grateful to Janet Purdy for helping create the map and its graphic.
15.Reprinted in his Obras: Sigüenza y Góngora (1928: 271–346).
16.“Cursed name”: Krauze (2010: 72–73) (Ninguna calle, ninguna estatua, ninguna ciudad, apenas algunos sitios que marcan su itinerario [el Mar de Cortés en California, el Paso de Cortés entre los volcanes, el Palacio de Cortés en Cuernavaca] se atreven a mencionar el nombre maldito).
17.Nelson and Nelson (1892: 142–43, 198–99); Tom Price, curator of the President James K. Polk Home and Museum, personal communication, July 19, 2016 (to whom I am grateful for his help, and for sending me an 1891 photograph of Polk Place’s entrance hall, with the Cortés painting visible on the wall); also see the White House Historical Association’s page, whitehousehistory.org/a-portrait-of-spanish-conquistador-hernan-cortes (written by the museum’s director, John Holtzapple); and Greenberg (2012: 268, 275, et al.) (I have enjoyed and benefited greatly from conversations with Amy Greenberg on Polk-related matters).
18.On the shifts in Tenochtitlan’s nomenclature of the 1520s–40s, see Mundy (2015: 132–33). The colored-tile replacement to the concrete plaque (shown in the Gallery) is a reproduction of the seventeenth-century biombo depictions of the Meeting and “Conquest”; at the time of writing, its artwork had proved less inviting to vandals or political protestors.
19.For a captivating visual record of the half-destroyed palace, see the 1695 painting by Cristóbal de Vallalpando, frequently reproduced (e.g., Kagan 2000: 163 and dust jacket; and with important discussion in Schreffler 2007: 32–35).
20.“Flag” to “cowardly”: Kendall (1851: 45–46; lithograph facing p. 45). The earlier lithograph of the zócalo was published variously in the 1830s and ’40s; both versions are easily found in modern publications and online. Also see Johannsen (1985: 228–29, 259).
21.Thomas (1857: 4 [unnumbered], 47–48 [Act III, Sc. 3], 74).
22.Prescott: Prescott (1994 [1843]); Gardiner (1959: 10–12, 213, 243). Occupation: Myers (2015: 51–53). Hymn: The rest of the opening verse is “First to fight for right and freedom, / And to keep our honor clean. / We are proud to claim the title of United States Marine” (published widely online and in print, but the earliest version that I found, complete with musical score, is Niles and Moore 1929: 72–74).
23.“Forgotten”: title to Kurutz and Mathes (2003); also see Johannsen (1985); Greenberg (2012).
24.Vivaldi (1733); Lajarte (1883); Subirá (1948); Riding (2005); interview with Máynez in the Mexican magazine Proceso, November 10, 2006, accessed at proceso.com.mx/223158/maynez-reescribe-en-nahuatl-moctezuma-de-vivaldi (not included in Bibliography) (inventó un romance amoroso bastante trivial; una bazofia, absurdo, una farsa tragicómica); Ng (2009).
25.By 1529, the Franciscans were established enough on the site of the old zoo to acquire another lot across the canal, westward toward the lake edge (and due south of where the Palacio de Bellas Artes now sits), where a hospital was built “for the sick indigenous boys (muchachos naturales de esta tierra . . . enfermos); part of that building complex still stands (copy of the city’s Actas de Cabildo in Newberry Library, Chicago; Ayer MS 1143, v.2: f. 11r; my thanks to Scott Cave for finding and sharing this document).
APPENDIX: LANGUAGE AND LABEL, CAST AND DYNASTY
1.Lockhart (1993: 13).
2.For prosopographies of the conquistadors who fought in Mexico, presented in variants on the encyclopedia and dictionary formats, see DCM; WWC; Díaz CCVI (1916, V: 252–59); and Schwaller and Nader (2014). My biographies here are based on a combination of those four sources with various archival and other items cited throughout the book.
Index
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Abbott, John, 3, 51–52, 87, 283, 291
Acamapichtli, 75, 140–41, 271
Acosta, José de, 97, 198
Adelantado, 61, 166, 170, 252, 391n
Adorno, Rolena, 20
African slaves, 284, 296, 298–99, 300, 338, 458n
Aguilar, Francisco de, 43, 45, 144, 145
Aguilar, Gerónimo de, 12, 32, 182, 184, 282–83, 320
Ahuitzotl, 257, 271
Alamán, Lucas, 233, 250, 436n
Alanís, 175
Alexander the Great, 237
Algiers campaign, 334
Altepetl, 204, 209, 218–19, 256–57, 264–65, 340
Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl, Fernando de. See Ixtlilxochitl
Alvarado, Gonzalo de, 185–86, 324
Alvarado, Pedro de, 240, 259
brief biography of, 361
Grijalva expedition, 166, 276
invasion of 1519, 185, 187, 216
January-August campaign of 1521, 255, 256
Kislak Paintings, 30, 33, 34
myth of Cortesian control, 180, 185, 187
Phoney Captivity, 223, 224
Toxcatl Massacre, 254, 339
violence and brutality, 316, 320
Alvarado brothers, 159, 168, 175, 185, 324, 361
Amaquemecan (Amecameca), 12, 203
Amazilia (opera), 70
Ambush theme of the Meeting, 49–53
American Revolution, 329–30
American Traveller, The, 158, 388n
Anacaona, 165, 418n, 420n
Ancient Society (Morgan), 86–87
Ancona, Eligio, 290
Anglo-Dutch Wars, 28
Angry Aztecs (Deary), 85, 394–95n
Annals of Tlatelolco, 224–25
Antihero, Cortés as, 248–52, 282
Armstrong, Neil, 26
Around the World in Eighty Days (Verne), 76, 394n
Art objects, 128–29
Atahuallpa, 200, 227
Atenpenecatl, Pedro, 203
Atrocities, 319–30, 341. See also Massacres
Austen, Jane, xxv
Austin, Alfredo López, 352
Aviaries, 123–24, 132
Ávila, Alonso de, 120, 166, 168, 187, 284, 423
Ávila, Diego de, 296, 303
Ávila, Pedrarias de, 158, 166, 305, 366
Axayaca Oceloxochitzin, María, 66
Axayacatl (Axayaca), 66–67, 194, 222, 223, 256, 257, 370
Ayllón, Lucas Vásquez de, 171
Ayotzinco (Ayotzingo), 12
Azcapotzalco, 257
Aztec, use of term, xii, 359
Aztec calendar, 146–47, 415–16n
Aztec Empire
map, viii–ix
timeline, xv–xx
use of term, xii, 359
Aztec “id
ols,” 79, 82, 83, 90, 96, 98, 214, 222, 234, 240, 362, 450n
Aztec religion, 95–102, 401n. See also specific deities
Montezuma’s zoo complex and, 133–37, 138–39
Aztec royal family. See also specific members
Dynastic Vine, 218, 367–68, 370–71
numerological code, 75–76
Phoney Captivity and, 217–19
role in the Surrender, 65–68
Aztec stereotypes, 75–92, 106, 120, 397–98n
Aztec Triple Alliance. See Triple
Alliance Aztec writing, 411n
Azúa, 157
Bacon, Francis, 1, 63
“Bad apple” argument, 324, 330
Baja, 271, 272, 275–76
Balboa, Vasco Núñez de, 157, 158
Battle of Otumba (Otompan), 34–35, 318, 336
Battle of Puebla, 71
Berlioz, Hector, 69
Bermúdez, Baltasar, 168, 421n
Bermúdez, Diego, 159, 421n
Birds, 123–24, 132
Black Legend, 52, 63, 245, 246, 250, 251–52, 320, 443n
Boabdil, 55
Bono de Quexo, Juan, 303, 324–25
Boone, Elizabeth, 97
Borgia, Caesar, 238–39, 438n
Botel, Alonso, 306
Boturini, Lorenzo, 101
Bravo, Alonso Gracía, 268
British sailor song, 113–14
Brooks, Francis, 214, 215, 219–20, 383n, 432n, 433n
Brumidi, Constantino, 24, 25–27, 383n
Buried objects, 90, 93, 408n
Burning of ships, 188–91, 425–26n
Cacama (Cacamatzin), 217–19, 258–59, 260, 371
brief biography of, 361
meeting the Spaniards, 13, 15, 203, 218, 258
murder of, 198, 226, 258–59
Phoney Captivity and, 217–19
Calendar, Aztec, 146–47, 415–16n
Calendar Stone, 84
Calpulalpan, 294–95
Calvo, Andrea, 38–39, 41–42
Campe, Joachim, 85, 216
Candelaria, Xochiquetzal, 251–52, 281
Cannibalism, 77–83
comparative perspective, 89–90
determining numbers, 85–86
European stereotypes of, 77–83, 86–88, 134, 395–96n
as justification of Conquest, 79–83, 102
Montezuma’s zoo complex and, 134
Cano, Juan, 4, 66, 286, 366
Capitol Rotunda scenes, 24, 25–27, 383n
Captain from Castile (movie), 189, 248
Caribes, 78
Carib Indians, 303
Carlos, Rey Emperador (TV drama), 248, 281–82
Carlos Ometochtzin, 90, 448n
Carlos II, 28, 244
Carlos V, 6, 8, 56–57, 58, 80–81, 135–36, 165, 171–72, 173, 179–80, 201, 275, 390n
Cortés letters to. See Cortés, Hernando, Letters to the King
edict of 1548, 294–96
Carr, E. H., 19–20
Carrasco, Davíd, 43, 88, 92, 386n, 397n, 402–3n, 415n
Cartas de relación. See Cortés, Hernando, Letters to the King
Carvajal, Michael de, 149, 175, 229
Castro, Martín de, 271–72
Catholicism in Mexico, 240–41
Caxtilteca, 145, 146, 183, 204, 207, 220, 222, 259, 260, 263, 266, 340, 344
Cempohuallan (Cempoala), 182, 183, 184, 205
Cermeno, Diego, 171
Cervantes de Salazar, Francisco, 45, 151, 154–56, 196, 215, 237, 307, 425n
Chalco, 12–13, 203
Chalco, Lake, 12–13, 262–63
Champion, Samuel Máynez, 352
Chapultepec, 139–40
Charles I of England, 105
Charles II of England, 403n
Charles V. See Carlos V
Chavero, Alfredo, 198
Chico, Francisco Alvarez, 185–86, 273–74
Child slavery, 297–98, 304–5
Chimalpopoca, 98
Cholmley, Hugh, 27–28, 30, 383n
Cholollan, 10, 12, 210
map, viii–ix
march to, 208, 209, 210
Quetzalcoatl association with, 100
timeline, xv–xx
Cholollan Massacre, xvii, 32–33, 208–10, 254, 317, 322, 323–24
Chorographs, 136–37
Christianity, 66, 239–42, 300–301, 343–44. See also Franciscans
the Meeting and, 39–46
violence and genocide, 89–90
Cihuacoatl, 269–70
Cinco de Mayo, 71
Clavigero, Francisco Javier, 101
Clendinnen, Inga, 75, 91–92
Coanacoch (Coanacochtzin), 218–19, 258–62, 265, 361, 371
Coatepec, 260
Coatlicue, 84, 96
Codex Aubin, 269–70, 281, 309
Codex Mendoza, 129–30, 142
Codex Moctezuma, 198
Codex Ramírez, 198
Codex Telleriano-Remensis, 97, 400–401n
Codex Tovar, 400n
Codex Tudela, 199
Codex Xolotl, 98
Cohualpopocatzin (Qualpopoca), 217–18, 224, 430n, 433n
Collis, Maurice, 75, 106, 107, 159
Colón, Diego, 172–73, 420n
Columbus, Bartolomé, 164
Columbus, Christopher, 77–78, 111–12, 159–60, 164, 252, 273, 299, 301, 324, 337
Concept of justification, 56–62
Confirmation bias, 62, 64, 88–89
“Conquest of Mexico,” xi–xii, xxix–xxxii
Classical narrative of, 64
traditional narrative of. See Traditional “Conquest of Mexico” narrative
Conquest of Mexico, The (Prescott). See Prescott, William
Conquest of Peru, 237, 276, 438n
Constant Captain, The (Sandoval), 176, 320
Contarini, Gasparo, 6
Cook, Sherburne, 86
Cortés, Gerónimo, 244, 442n
Cortés, Hernando
as Antihero, 248–52, 282
arrival in Tenochtitlan, 4, 5, 6–9, 14–15, 54–55
birth and early life, 151–54
brief biography of, 362
burial of, 232
as Caesar, 188, 189, 212, 236–39
captivity of Montezuma. See Phoney Captivity
Caribbean years, 155–61, 418–19n
Catalina Suárez’s death, 281–87, 452–53n, 456n
chain of conquest justification, 80–81
commemorative statues of, 234–35
death of, 232, 296–97
feud with Velázquez. See Cortés, Hernando, feud with Velázquez
final years of, 271–77, 457n
Franciscan alliance, 40–41, 204, 240–41, 321
as God’s antidote to Luther, 151–52
governorship of New Spain, 80–81, 172–73, 178, 272, 274–76
hagiographies, 153, 235–36
as Hero, 29, 34, 169–70, 242–48, 441–42n
Kislak Paintings, 30–35
legend of. See Cortesian legend letters. See Cortés, Hernando, Letters to the King
meeting Montezuma. See Meeting, the
Montezuma’s treasure and, 31, 135–36
as Moses, 239–42
myth of control. See Cortés, Hernando, myth of control
as Quetzalcoatl, 40–45, 143–44, 401–3n
re-burial of, 231–34, 346–47
residencia investigation, 176, 219, 249, 282, 287, 294, 295, 304, 311
royal grant of arms, 236
slaves on Cuauhnahuac estate, 296–98, 303
tiger sent to father, 137–39
trans-Pacific expedition, 274–75, 276–77
use of term, xii
women, sex, and slavery, 287–88, 291–93, 307–8, 309–10
Cortés, Hernando, feud with Velázquez, 29, 161–65, 169–81, 249
basic outline of, 162
cohort loyalties, 174–77, 423n
factional disputes, 170�
�77
Gómara anecdote, 161–62
Spanish political system, 177–80
Cortés, Hernando, Letters to the
King, 6–7, 172–73, 175, 179–80, 235, 244, 277, 442–43n
Second Letter, 6–12, 29, 38–39, 56–57, 59, 96, 116, 116, 117–19, 122, 194–95, 212, 213–15
Third Letter, 7, 29–30, 274
Cortés, Hernando, myth of control, 31, 161, 180–91, 205, 211
April 22 landing, 181–83
burning of ships, 188–91, 425–26n
captains’ documents, 185–88
infighting among Spaniards, 184–86
role of Aztec-Totonac political negotiations, 182–84
Cortés, Luís, 232–33, 255
Cortés, Martín (father), 55, 137–38, 186–87
Cortés, Martín (son), 232–33, 235, 277, 287, 333–34, 363, 438n
Cortés: or, the Discovery of Mexico (Campe), 85, 216
Cortés, Pedro, 233
“Cortés and Cannon” (Candelaria), 251–52, 281
Cortesian legend, 151–91, 231–52, 277–78
biographical themes, 151–56, 161–62
Black Legend, 52, 63, 245, 246, 250, 251–52, 320, 443n
Cortés as Antihero, 248–52, 282
Cortés as Caesar, 188, 189, 212, 236–39
Cortés as Hero, 29, 34, 169–70, 242–48, 441–42n
Cortés as Moses, 239–42, 440n
Cortés-Velázquez feud, 161–65, 169–81
Gómara’s foundational account, 153–56, 161–68
myth of Caribbean years, 156–61
myth of Cortesian control. See Cortés, Hernando, myth of control
providential destiny, 29, 110, 152–54, 157
re-burial, 231–34
slavery’s role, 298
treatment of time, 155–56
Cortez, the Conqueror (play), 43, 289, 333, 349–50
“Cortez the Killer” (song), 149, 251
Costello, Damian, 382n
Courbes, Juan de, xxiv, xxviii
Coyoacan, 234–35
Coyohuacan, 201–2, 203
Cromberger, Jacobo, 7
Crónica X, 195, 403n
Cuauhtemoc, 75, 235, 250, 269–70, 286
brief biography of, 362
death of, 48, 62, 227
myth of assassination of Montezuma, 197
Spanish-Aztec War, 48, 261–62, 267
Cuba, 52, 57, 155–59, 161, 162–63, 165–68, 171, 175, 176, 185, 303
Cuéllar, Juan de, 287, 423n
Cuicuizcatl, 258–59
Cuitecotle, Diego, 203