30. Elad Yom-Tov et al., User behavior monitoring on a computerized device, US9427185 B2, filed June 20, 2013, and issued August 30, 2016, http://www.google.com/patents/US9427185.
31. B. F. Skinner, Walden Two (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2005), 195–96.
32. Eric Schmidt and Sebastian Thrun, “Let’s Stop Freaking Out About Artificial Intelligence,” Fortune, June 28, 2016, http://fortune.com/2016/06/28/artificial-intelligence-potential.
33. Schmidt and Thrun, “Let’s Stop Freaking Out.”
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
1. Alex Pentland, “Alex Pentland Homepage—Honest Signals, Reality Mining, and Sensible Organizations,” February 2, 2016, http://web.media.mit.edu/~sandy; “Alex Pentland—Bio,” World Economic Forum, February 28, 2018, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/authors/alex-pentland; Edge Video, “The Human Strategy: A Conversation with Alex ‘Sandy’ Pentland,” October 30, 2017, https://www.edge.org/conversation/alex_sandy_pentland-the-human-strategy.
2. Talks at Google, Sandy Pentland: “Social Physics: How Good Ideas Spread,” YouTube.com, March 7, 2014, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HMB10 ttu-Ow.
3. Maria Konnikova, “Meet the Godfather of Wearables,” Verge, May 6, 2014, http://www.theverge.com/2014/5/6/5661318/the-wizard-alex-pentland-father-of-the-wearable-computer.
4. “Alex Pentland,” Wikipedia, July 22, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alex_Pentland&oldid=791778066; Konnikova, “Meet the Godfather”; Dave Feinleib, “3 Big Data Insights from the Grandfather of Google Glass,” Forbes, October 17, 2012, http://www.forbes.com/sites/davefeinleib/2012/10/17/3-big-data-insights-from-the-grandfather-of-google-glass.
5. The term social physics originates in the positivist philosophy of Auguste Comte, who preceded Planck in his programmatic vision of a scientific approach to the study of society that would equal the precision of the natural sciences. In the 1830s Comte wrote the following: “Now that the human mind has founded celestial physics, terrestrial physics… and organic physics… it only remains to complete the system of observational sciences by the foundation of social physics.” See Auguste Comte, Introduction to Positive Philosophy, ed. Frederick Ferré (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1988), 13.
Nearly two hundred years later, Pentland’s theory and research in social physics have made him the focus of articles in the New York Times, the Harvard Business Review, and the New Yorker, as well as a prominent speaker on the global circuit, from the UN and the World Economic Forum to corporations and international conferences. At Microsoft and Google he has been featured as the “presiding genius” of the “Big Data revolution,” whose “groundbreaking experiments” and “remarkable discoveries” have made his work “the bedrock of a whole new scientific field.” With the publication of his book Social Physics, Pentland was introduced at the popular Digital-Life-Design Conference in 2014 by the well-known social media analyst Clay Shirky, who opined that Pentland’s Human Dynamics Lab “has done more to explain human behavior in groups in the last ten years than any other institution in the world.”
6. Konnikova, “Meet the Godfather.”
7. Konnikova.
8. Tanzeem Choudhury and Alex Pentland, “The Sociometer: A Wearable Device for Understanding Human Networks” (white paper, Computer Supported Cooperative Work—Workshop on Ad Hoc Communications and Collaboration in Ubiquitous Computing Environments), November 2, 2002.
9. Choudhury and Pentland.
10. Nathan Eagle and Alex Pentland, “Reality Mining: Sensing Complex Social Systems,” Personal and Ubiquitous Computing 10, no. 4 (2006): 255, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00779-005-0046-3.
11. Alex Pentland, “‘Reality Mining’ the Organization,” MIT Technology Review, March 31, 2004, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/402609/reality-mining-the-organization.
12. Eagle and Pentland, “Reality Mining.”
13. Kate Greene, “TR10: Reality Mining,” MIT Technology Review, February 19, 2008, http://www2.technologyreview.com/news/409598/tr10-reality-mining; Alex Pentland, Social Physics: How Good Ideas Spread—the Lessons from a New Science (Brunswick, NJ: Scribe, 2014), 217–18.
14. Pentland, Social Physics, 2–3.
15. Greene, “TR10.”
16. Alex Pentland, “The Data-Driven Society,” Scientific American 309 (October 2013): 78–83, https://doi.org/doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1013-78.
17. Pentland, “‘Reality Mining’ the Organization.”
18. Nathan Eagle and Alex Pentland, Combined short range radio network and cellular telephone network for interpersonal communications, MIT ID: 10705T, US US7877082B2, filed May 6, 2004, and issued September 19, 2014, https://patents.google.com/patent/US20150006207A1/en.
19. See Ryan Singel, “When Cell Phones Become Oracles,” Wired, July 25, 2005, https://www.wired.com/2005/07/when-cell-phones-become-oracles.
20. Pentland, “‘Reality Mining’ the Organization.”
21. D. O. Olguin et al., “Sensible Organizations: Technology and Methodology for Automatically Measuring Organizational Behavior,” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part B (Cybernetics) 39, no. 1 (2009): 43–55, https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMCB.2008.2006638.
22. Taylor Soper, “MIT Spinoff Tenacity Raises $1.5M to Improve Workplace Productivity with ‘Social Physics,’” GeekWire, February 10, 2016, https://www.geekwire.com/2016/tenacity-raises-1-5m; Ron Miller, “Endor Emerges from MIT Research with Unique Predictive Analytics Tech,” TechCrunch, March 8, 2017, http://social.techcrunch.com/2017/03/08/endor-emerges-from-mit-research-with-unique-predictive-analytics-tech; Rob Matheson, “Watch Your Tone,” MIT News, January 20, 2016, http://news.mit.edu/2016/startup-cogito-voice-analytics-call-centers-ptsd-0120.
23. Ben Waber, People Analytics: How Social Sensing Technology Will Transform Business and What It Tells Us About the Future of Work (Upper Saddle River, NJ: FT Press, 2013).
24. Ron Miller, “New Firm Combines Wearables and Data to Improve Decision Making,” TechCrunch, February 24, 2015, http://social.techcrunch.com/2015/02/24/new-firm-combines-wearables-and-data-to-improve-decision-making.
25. Miller, “New Firm”; Alexandra Bosanac, “How ‘People Analytics’ Is Transforming Human Resources,” Canadian Business, October 26, 2015, http://www.canadianbusiness.com/innovation/how-people-analytics-is-transforming-human-resources.
26. Pentland, “The Data-Driven Society.”
27. “Alex Pentland Homepage”; Endor.com, December 23, 2017; “Endor—Careers,” http://www.endor.com/careers; “Endor—Social Physics,” http://www.endor.com/social-physics.
28. “Yellow Pages Acquires Sense Networks,” Yellow Pages, January 6, 2014, http://corporate.yp.com/yp-acquires-sense-networks.
29. Alison E. Berman, “MIT’s Sandy Pentland: Big Data Can Be a Profoundly Humanizing Force in Industry,” Singularity Hub, May 16, 2016, https://singularityhub.com/2016/05/16/mits-sandy-pentland-big-data-can-be-a-profoundly-humanizing-force-in-industry.
30. Berman, “MIT’s Sandy Pentland.”
31. Alex Pentland, “Society’s Nervous System: Building Effective Government, Energy, and Public Health Systems,” MIT Open Access Articles, October 2011, http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/66256.
32. Pentland, “Society’s Nervous System,” 3.
33. Pentland, 6.
34. Pentland, 2–4.
35. Pentland, 3.
36. Pentland, 10.
37. Pentland, 8 (italics mine).
38. Pentland.
39. Pentland, Social Physics, 10–11.
40. Pentland, 12 (italics mine).
41. Pentland, 245.
42. Pentland, 7 (italics mine).
43. B. F. Skinner, Beyond Freedom & Dignity (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2002), 175.
44. B. F. Skinner, Walden Two (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2005), 241.
45. Skinner, Walden Two, 162.
46. Skinner, 239.
47. Pentland, Social Physics, 19.
48. Pentland, 143, 18.
49. Pentland, 153.
50. Skinner, Walden Two,
275.
51. Skinner, 252.
52. Skinner, 255–56.
53. Skinner, 218–19.
54. Pentland, Social Physics, 191.
55. Pentland, 2–3.
56. Pentland, 6–7.
57. Pentland, 172 (italics mine).
58. Pentland, 38.
59. Skinner, Walden Two, 92–93 (italics mine).
60. Pentland, Social Physics, 69.
61. Pentland, 184.
62. Pentland, 152.
63. Pentland, 190.
64. Pentland, 46.
65. Alex Pentland, “The Death of Individuality: What Really Governs Your Actions?” New Scientist 222, no. 2963 (2014): 30–31, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0262-4079(14)60684-9.
66. Skinner, Beyond Freedom, 155–56.
67. Pentland, Social Physics, 191, 203–4.
68. Pentland, “The Death of Individuality.”
69. Skinner, Beyond Freedom, 200, 205.
70. Skinner, 211.
71. Talks at Google, Sandy Pentland: “Social Physics: How Good Ideas Spread.”
72. Noam Chomsky, “The Case Against B. F. Skinner,” New York Review of Books, December 30, 1971.
73. Pentland, Social Physics, 189.
74. Pentland, 190.
75. Alex Pentland, “Reality Mining of Mobile Communications: Toward a New Deal on Data,” in Global Information Technology Report, World Economic Forum & INSEAD (World Economic Forum, 2009), 75–80.
76. Harvard Business Review Staff, “With Big Data Comes Big Responsibility,” Harvard Business Review, November 1, 2014, https://hbr.org/2014/11/with-big-data-comes-big-responsibility.
77. “Who Should We Trust to Manage Our Data?” World Economic Forum, accessed August 9, 2018, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/10/who-should-we-trust-manage-our-data/.
78. Primavera De Filippi and Benjamin Loveluck, “The Invisible Politics of Bitcoin: Governance Crisis of a Decentralized Infrastructure,” Internet Policy Review 5, no. 3 (September 30, 2016).
79. Staff, “With Big Data Comes Big Responsibility.”
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
1. “The World UNPLUGGED,” The World UNPLUGGED, https://theworld unplugged.wordpress.com.
2. For an insightful account, see Katherine Losse, The Boy Kings: A Journey into the Heart of the Social Network (New York: Free Press, 2012).
3. “Confusion,” The World UNPLUGGED, February 26, 2011, https://theworldunplugged.wordpress.com/emotion/confusion.
4. “College Students Spend 12 Hours/Day with Media, Gadgets,” Marketing Charts, November 30, 2009, https://www.marketingcharts.com/television-11195.
5. Andrew Perrin and Jingjing Jiang, “About a Quarter of U.S. Adults Say They Are ‘Almost Constantly’ Online,” Pew Research Center, March 14, 2018, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/03/14/about-a-quarter-of-americans-report-going-online-almost-constantly; Monica Anderson and Jingjing Jiang, “Teens, Social Media & Technology 2018,” Pew Research Center, May 31, 2018, http://www.pewinternet.org/2018/05/31/teens-social-media-technology-2018/.
6. Jason Dorsey, “Gen Z—Tech Disruption: 2016 National Study on Technology and the Generation After Millennials,” Center for Generational Kinetics, 2016, http://3pur2814p18t46fuop22hvvu.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Research-White-Paper-Gen-Z-Tech-Disruption-c-2016-Center-for-Generational-Kinetics.pdf.
7. Sarah Marsh, “Girls Suffer Under Pressure of Online ‘Perfection,’ Poll Finds,” Guardian, August 22, 2017, http://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/aug/23/girls-suffer-under-pressure-of-online-perfection-poll-finds.
8. For an early and insightful theoretical discussion of the internet as a zone of personal objectification, see Julie E. Cohen, “Examined Lives: Informational Privacy and the Subject as Object” (SSRN Scholarly Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, August 15, 2000), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=233597.
9. Sarah Marsh and Guardian readers, “Girls and Social Media: ‘You Are Expected to Live Up to an Impossible Standard,’” Guardian, August 22, 2017, http://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/aug/23/girls-and-social-media-you-are-expected-to-live-up-to-an-impossible-standard.
10. See Marsh, “Girls and Social Media.”
11. “Millennials Check Their Phones More Than 157 Times per Day,” New York, May 31, 2016, https://socialmediaweek.org/newyork/2016/05/31/millennials-check-phones-157-times-per-day (italics mine).
12. Natasha Dow Schüll, Addiction by Design: Machine Gambling in Las Vegas (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014), 166–67.
13. Schüll, Addiction by Design, 160.
14. Natasha Dow Schüll, “Beware: ‘Machine Zone’ Ahead,” Washington Post, July 6, 2008, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/04/AR2008070402134.html (italics mine).
15. See Schüll, Addiction by Design, 174.
16. Alex Hern, “‘Never Get High on Your Own Supply’—Why Social Media Bosses Don’t Use Social Media,” Guardian, January 23, 2018, http://www.theguardian.com/media/2018/jan/23/never-get-high-on-your-own-supply-why-social-media-bosses-dont-use-social-media.
17. Jessica Contrera, “This Is What It’s Like to Grow Up in the Age of Likes, Lols and Longing,” Washington Post, May 25, 2016, http://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/style/2016/05/25/13-right-now-this-is-what-its-like-to-grow-up-in-the-age-of-likes-lols-and-longing.
18. Granville Stanley Hall, Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education (Memphis, TN: General Books, 2013), 1:3.
19. Hall, Adolescence, 1:84.
20. Erik H. Erikson, Identity and the Life Cycle (New York: W. W. Norton, 1994), 126–27. See also Erik H. Erikson, Identity: Youth and Crisis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1994), especially 128–35.
21. For an introduction to this concept, see Jeffrey Jensen Arnett, Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Road from the Late Teens Through the Twenties (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).
22. See, for example, Laurence Steinberg and Richard M. Lerner, “The Scientific Study of Adolescence: A Brief History,” Journal of Early Adolescence 24, no. 1 (2004): 45–54, https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431603260879; Arnett, Emerging Adulthood; Daniel Lapsley and Ryan D. Woodbury, “Social Cognitive Development in Emerging Adulthood,” in The Oxford Handbook of Emerging Adulthood (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015); Wim Meeus, “Adolescent Psychosocial Development: A Review of Longitudinal Models and Research,” Developmental Psychology 52, no. 12 (2016): 1969–93, https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000243; Jeffrey Jensen Arnett et al., Debating Emerging Adulthood: Stage or Process? (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011).
23. Dan P. McAdams, “Life Authorship in Emerging Adulthood,” in The Oxford Handbook of Emerging Adulthood (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 438.
24. Lapsley and Woodbury, “Social Cognitive Development,” 152.
25. Lapsley and Woodbury, 155. Academic discussions of the individuation-attachment balance frequently turn on questions of culture. How universal are these developmental insights? A passage from Lapsley and Woodbury’s review addresses this question in way that I find balanced and reasonable:
How individuation plays out in different ethnoracial groups, in different cultural settings, and within national boundaries or in cross-national samples, are all matters of empirical inquiry. But the tension between agency and communion is a basic duality of human existence (Bakan, 1966) in our view. How it is calibrated may well show variability across cultures. Some societies may prioritize communion, but agency is not thereby neglected. Other societies may prioritize agency, but the yearning for attachment, communion, and bonding is never absent. Moreover, how agency-communion is manifested will vary within the life course of the self-same individual, depending on relational status, developmental priorities, or life circumstances. However the compromise is struck between agency and communion, emerging adulthood is the developmental period during which the hard bargaining will have to take place, with important implications for late
r adjustment in adulthood.
The reference in this extract is to David Bakan, The Duality of Human Existence: Isolation and Communion in Western Man (Boston: Beacon, 1966).
26. Robert Kegan, The Evolving Self: Problem and Process in Human Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), 96. See the discussion on 95–100.
27. Erikson, Identity: Youth and Crisis, 130.
28. Kegan, The Evolving Self, 19.
29. Lapsley and Woodbury, “Social Cognitive Development,” 152.
30. danah boyd, It’s Complicated: The Social Lives of Networked Teens (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014), 8.
31. Chris Nodder, Evil by Design: Interaction Design to Lead Us into Temptation (Indianapolis: Wiley, 2013), xv.
32. Lapsley and Woodbury, “Social Cognitive Development,” 152.
33. Nodder, Evil by Design, 5.
34. “What’s the History of the Awesome Button (That Eventually Became the Like Button) on Facebook?” Quora, September 19, 2017, https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-history-of-the-Awesome-Button-that-eventually-became-the-Like-button-on-Facebook.
35. See John Paul Titlow, “How Instagram Learns from Your Likes to Keep You Hooked,” Fast Company, July 7, 2017, https://www.fastcompany.com/4043 4598/how-instagram-learns-from-your-likes-to-keep-you-hooked.
36. Adam Alter, Irresistible: The Rise of Addictive Technology and the Business of Keeping Us Hooked (New York: Penguin, 2017), 128.
37. Josh Constine, “How Facebook News Feed Works,” TechCrunch, September 6, 2016, http://social.techcrunch.com/2016/09/06/ultimate-guide-to-the-news-feed.
38. Michael Arrington, “Facebook Users Revolt, Facebook Replies,” TechCrunch, http://social.techcrunch.com/2006/09/06/facebook-users-revolt-facebook-replies.
39. Victor Luckerson, “Here’s How Your Facebook News Feed Actually Works,” Time, July 9, 2015, http://time.com/collection-post/3950525/facebook-news-feed-algorithm.
40. See Constine, “How Facebook News Feed Works.” The quotation is from Will Oremus, “Who Controls Your Facebook Feed,” Slate, January 3, 2016, http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/cover_story/2016/01/how_facebook_s_news_feed_algorithm_works.html.
41. Constine, “How Facebook News Feed Works.”
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