42. See Luckerson, “Here’s How Your Facebook News Feed Actually Works.”
43. See Oremus, “Who Controls Your Facebook Feed.”
44. Alessandro Acquisti, Laura Brandimarte, and George Loewenstein, “Privacy and Human Behavior in the Age of Information,” Science 347, no. 6221 (2015): 509–14, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa1465.
45. Jerry Suls and Ladd Wheeler, “Social Comparison Theory,” in Theories of Social Psychology, ed. Paul A. M. Van Lange, Arie W. Kruglanski, and E. Tory Higgins, vol. 2 (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2012), 460–82.
46. David R. Mettee and John Riskind, “Size of Defeat and Liking for Superior and Similar Ability Competitors,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 10, no. 4 (1974): 333–51; See also T. Mussweiler and K. Rütter, “What Friends Are For! The Use of Routine Standards in Social Comparison,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85, no. 3 (2003): 467–81.
47. Suls and Wheeler, “Social Comparison Theory.”
48. K. Hennigan and L. Heath, “Impact of the Introduction of Television on Crime in the United States: Empirical Findings and Theoretical Implications,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42, no. 3 (1982): 461–77; Hyeseung Yang and Mary Beth Oliver, “Exploring the Effects of Television Viewing on Perceived Life Quality: A Combined Perspective of Material Value and Upward Social Comparison,” Mass Communication and Society 13, no. 2 (2010): 118–38.
49. Amanda L. Forest and Joanne V. Wood, “When Social Networking Is Not Working,” Psychological Science 23, no. 3 (2012): 295–302; Lin Qiu et al., “Putting Their Best Foot Forward: Emotional Disclosure on Facebook,” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 15, no. 10 (2012): 569–72.
50. Jiangmeng Liu et al., “Do Our Facebook Friends Make Us Feel Worse? A Study of Social Comparison and Emotion,” Human Communication Research 42, no. 4 (2016): 619–40, https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12090.
51. Andrew K. Przybylski et al., “Motivational, Emotional, and Behavioral Correlates of Fear of Missing Out,” Computers in Human Behavior 29, no. 4 (2013): 1841–48, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.02.014.
52. Qin-Xue Liu et al., “Need Satisfaction and Adolescent Pathological Internet Use: Comparison of Satisfaction Perceived Online and Offline,” Computers in Human Behavior 55 (February 2016): 695–700, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.09.048; Dorit Alt, “College Students’ Academic Motivation, Media Engagement and Fear of Missing Out,” Computers in Human Behavior 49 (August 2015): 111–19, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.02.057; Roselyn J. Lee-Won, Leo Herzog, and Sung Gwan Park, “Hooked on Facebook: The Role of Social Anxiety and Need for Social Assurance in Problematic Use of Facebook,” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 18, no. 10 (2015): 567–74, https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2015.0002; Jon D. Elhai et al., “Fear of Missing Out, Need for Touch, Anxiety and Depression Are Related to Problematic Smartphone Use,” Computers in Human Behavior 63 (October 2016): 509–16, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.079.
53. Nina Haferkamp and Nicole C. Krämer, “Social Comparison 2.0: Examining the Effects of Online Profiles on Social-Networking Sites,” Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking 14, no. 5 (2011): 309–14, https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2010.0120. See also Helmut Appel, Alexander L. Gerlach, and Jan Crusius, “The Interplay Between Facebook Use, Social Comparison, Envy, and Depression,” Current Opinion in Psychology 9 (June 2016): 44–49, https:///doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.10.006.
54. Ethan Kross et al., “Facebook Use Predicts Declines in Subjective Well-Being in Young Adults,” PLoS ONE 8, no. 8 (2013): e69841, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069841.
55. Hanna Krasnova et al., “Envy on Facebook: A Hidden Threat to Users’ Life Satisfaction?” Wirtschaftsinformatik Proceedings 2013 92 (January 1, 2013), http://aisel.aisnet.org/wi2013/92; Christina Sagioglou and Tobias Greitemeyer, “Facebook’s Emotional Consequences: Why Facebook Causes a Decrease in Mood and Why People Still Use It,” Computers in Human Behavior 35 (June 2014): 359–63, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.03.003.
56. Edson C. Tandoc Jr., Patrick Ferruci, and Margaret Duffy, “Facebook Use, Envy, and Depression Among College Students: Is Facebooking Depressing?” Computers in Human Behavior 43 (February 2015): 139–46.
57. Adriana M. Manago et al., “Facebook Involvement, Objectified Body Consciousness, Body Shame, and Sexual Assertiveness in College Women and Men,” Springer 72, nos. 1–2 (2014): 1–14, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0441-1.
58. Jan-Erik Lönnqvist and Fenne große Deters, “Facebook Friends, Subjective Well-Being, Social Support, and Personality,” Computers in Human Behavior 55 (February 2016): 113–20, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.09.002; Daniel C. Feiler and Adam M. Kleinbaum, “Popularity, Similarity, and the Network Extraversion Bias,” Psychological Science 26, no. 5 (2015): 593–603, https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615569580.
59. Brian A. Primack et al., “Social Media Use and Perceived Social Isolation Among Young Adults in the U.S.,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 53, no. 1 (2017): 1–8, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2017.01.010; Taylor Argo and Lisa Lowery, “The Effects of Social Media on Adolescent Health and Well-Being,” Journal of Adolescent Health 60, no. 2 (2017): S75–76, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.10.331; Elizabeth M Seabrook, Margaret L. Kern, and Nikki S. Rickard, “Social Networking Sites, Depression, and Anxiety: A Systematic Review,” JMIR Mental Health 3, no. 4 (2016): e50, https://doi.org/10.2196/mental.5842.
60. Holly B. Shakya and Nicholas A. Christakis, “Association of Facebook Use with Compromised Well-Being: A Longitudinal Study,” American Journal of Epidemiology, January 16, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kww189.
61. Bernd Heinrich, The Homing Instinct (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014), 298–99.
62. Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (New York: Anchor, 1959), 112–32.
63. There is an extensive literature on this topic, but two articles that specifically reference “chilling effects” in social media are Sauvik Das and Adam Kramer, “Self-Censorship on Facebook,” in Proceedings of the Seventh International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media, 2013; Alice E. Marwick and danah boyd, “I Tweet Honestly, I Tweet Passionately: Twitter Users, Context Collapse, and the Imagined Audience,” New Media & Society 13, no. 1 (2011): 114–33.
64. Shoshana Zuboff, file note, November 9, 2017, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario.
65. Ben Marder, Adam Joinson, Avi Shankar, and David Houghton, “The Extended ‘Chilling’ Effect of Facebook: The Cold Reality of Ubiquitous Social Networking,” Computers in Human Behavior 60 (July 1, 2016): 582–92, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.097.
66. Stanley Milgram and Thomas Blass, The Individual in a Social World: Essays and Experiments, 3rd ed. (London: Pinter & Martin, 2010), xxi–xxiii.
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
1. Gaston Bachelard, The Poetics of Space (Boston: Beacon, 1994), 6.
2. Bachelard, The Poetics of Space, 7.
3. Bachelard, 91.
4. Philip Marfleet, “Understanding ‘Sanctuary’: Faith and Traditions of Asylum,” Journal of Refugee Studies 24, no. 3 (2011): 440–55, https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fer040.
5. John Griffiths Pedley, Sanctuaries and the Sacred in the Ancient Greek World (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 97.
6. H. Bianchi, Justice as Sanctuary (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2010). See also Norman Maclaren Trenholme and Frank Thilly, The Right of Sanctuary in England: A Study in Institutional History, vol. 1 (Columbia: University of Missouri, 1903).
7. Linda McClain, “Inviolability and Privacy: The Castle, the Sanctuary, and the Body,” Yale Journal of Law & the Humanities 7, no. 1 (1995): 203, http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/yjlh/vol7/iss1/9.
8. Darhl M. Pedersen, “Psychological Functions of Privacy,” Journal of Environmental Psychology 17, no. 2 (1997): 147–56, https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.1997.0049. For valuable related discussions in legal scholarship, see Daniel J.
Solove, “‘I’ve Got Nothing to Hide’ and Other Misunderstandings of Privacy,” San Diego Law Review 44 (July 12, 2007): 745; Julie E. Cohen, “What Privacy Is For” (SSRN Scholarly Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, November 5, 2012), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2175406.
9. Anita L. Allen, Unpopular Privacy: What Must We Hide? Studies in Feminist Philosophy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 4.
10. Orin S. Kerr, “Searches and Seizures in a Digital World,” Harvard Law Review 119, no. 2 (2005): 531–85; Elizabeth B. Wydra, Brianne J. Gorod, and Brian R. Frazelle, “Timothy Ivory Carpenter v. United States of America—On Writ of Certiorari to the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit—Brief of Scholars of the History and Original Meaning of the Fourth Amendment as Amici Curiae in Support of Petitioner,” Supreme Court of the United States, August 14, 2017; David Gray, The Fourth Amendment in an Age of Surveillance (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017); David Gray, “The Fourth Amendment Categorical Imperative,” Michigan Law Review, 2017, http://michiganlawreview.org/the-fourth-amendment-categorical-imperative.
11. See Jennifer Daskal, “The Un-territoriality of Data,” Yale Law Journal 125, no. 2 (2015): 326–98.
12. Andrew Guthrie Ferguson, “The Internet of Things and the Fourth Amendment of Effects,” California Law Review, August 3, 2015, 879–80, https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2577944.
13. Lisa Van Dongen and Tjerk Timan, “Your Smart Coffee Machine Knows What You Did Last Summer: A Legal Analysis of the Limitations of Traditional Privacy of the Home Under Dutch Law in the Era of Smart Technology” (SSRN Scholarly Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, September 1, 2017), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3090340.
14. For a clear explanation of “consent” under the GDPR, see Sally Annereau, “Understanding Consent Under the GDPR,” Global Data Hub, November 2016, https://globaldatahub.taylorwessing.com/article/understanding-consent-under-the-gdpr..
15. McCann FitzGerald and Ruairí Madigan, “GDPR and the Internet of Things: 5 Things You Need to Know,” Lexology, May 26, 2016, http://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=ba0b0d12-bae3-4e93-b832-85c15620b877.
16. Daphne Keller, “The Right Tools: Europe’s Intermediary Liability Laws and the 2016 General Data Protection Regulation” (SSRN Scholarly Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, March 22, 2017), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2914684; Sandra Wachter, “Normative Challenges of Identification in the Internet of Things: Privacy, Profiling, Discrimination, and the GDPR” (SSRN Scholarly Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, December 6, 2017), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3083554; Tal Zarsky, “Incompatible: The GDPR in the Age of Big Data” (SSRN Scholarly Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, August 8, 2017), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3022646; Anna Rossi, “Respected or Challenged by Technology? The General Data Protection Regulation and Commercial Profiling on the Internet” (SSRN Scholarly Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, July 13, 2016), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2852739; Viktor Mayer-Schönberger and Yann Padova, “Regime Change? Enabling Big Data Through Europe’s New Data Protection Regulation,” Columbia Science & Technology Law Review 315 (2016): 315–35.
17. Paul-Olivier Dehaye, e-mail message to DCMS Committee, March 6, 2018, http://data.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/committeeevidence.svc/evidencedocument/digital-culture-media-and-sport-committee/fake-news/written/80117.html.
18. Paul-Olivier Dehaye, e-mail message to DCMS Committee, March 7, 2018, http://data.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/committeeevidence.svc/evidence document/digital-culture-media-and-sport-committee/fake-news/written/80117.html (italics mine).
19. For more on Hive’s data and architecture, see the Facebook audit performed in 2011–2012 by the Irish Data Protection Commissioner, following the efforts of privacy activist Max Schrems, who challenged Facebook’s accumulation of personal data on EU citizens: “Facebook Audit,” Data Protection Commission—Ireland, July 3, 2018, https://www.dataprotection.ie/docs/Facbook-Audit/1290.htm.
20. “How Can I Download a Copy of My Facebook Data?” Facebook, https://www.facebook.com/help/1701730696756992; “What to Look for in Your Facebook Data—and How to Find It,” Wired, April 26, 2018, https://www.wired.com/story/download-facebook-data-how-to-read.
21. John Paul Titlow, “How Instagram Learns from Your Likes to Keep You Hooked,” Fast Company, July 7, 2017, https://www.fastcompany.com/40434598/how-instagram-learns-from-your-likes-to-keep-you-hooked; Lilian Edwards and Michael Veale, “Slave to the Algorithm? Why a ‘Right to an Explanation’ Is Probably Not the Remedy You Are Looking For” (SSRN Scholarly Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, May 23, 2017), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2972855; Michael Veale, Reuben Binns, and Jef Ausloos, “When Data Protection by Design and Data Subject Rights Clash,” International Data Privacy Law, April 26, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipy002; Dimitra Kamarinou, Christopher Millard, and Jatinder Singh, “Machine Learning with Personal Data” (SSRN Scholarly Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, November 7, 2016), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2865811.
22. Andrew Tutt, “An FDA for Algorithms,” Administrative Law Review 69, no. 83 (2017), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2747994.
23. Personal communication.
24. For an excellent discussion of these power dynamics in historical perspective, see Robin Mansell, “Bits of Power: Struggling for Control of Information and Communication Networks,” Political Economy of Communication 5, no. 1 (2017), 2–29, especially 16.
25. Laura Nader, “The Life of the Law—a Moving Story,” Valparaiso University Law Review 36, no. 3 (2002): 658.
26. For more on NOYB, see its informative website: “Noyb.Eu | My Privacy Is None of Your Business,” https://noyb.eu. See also Hannah Kuchler, “Max Schrems: The Man Who Took on Facebook—and Won,” Financial Times, April 5, 2018.
27. 2010–2012: Kit Seeborg, “Facebook Q4 2012 Quarterly Earnings,” January 31, 2013, https://www.slideshare.net/kitseeborg/fb-q412-investordeck/4-Daily_Active_Users_DAUsMillions_of; 2013–2014: “Facebook Q4 2014 Results,” investor.fb.com, August 4, 21018, http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/AMDA-NJ5DZ/3907746207x0x805520/2D74EDCA-E02A-420B-A262-BC096264BB93/FB_Q414EarningsSlides20150128.pdf, 3; 2015–2017: Deborah Crawford et al., “Facebook, Inc. (FB)—Fourth Quarter and Full Year 2016 Results,” February 1, 2017, https://s21.q4cdn.com/399680738/files/doc_financials/2017/Q4/Q4-2017-Earnings-Presentation.pdf, 2.
28. United States and Canada: “Facebook: Quarterly Revenue in U.S. and Canada from 1st Quarter 2010 to 2nd Quarter 2018,” Statista, 2018, https://www.statista.com/statistics/223280/facebooks-quarterly-revenue-in-the-us-and-canada-by-segment/#0; Europe: “Facebook: Quarterly Revenue in Europe from 1st Quarter 2010 to 2nd Quarter 2018,” Statista, 2018, https://www.statista.com/statistics/223279/facebooks-quarterly-revenue-in-europe/#0.
29. “Global Stats,” statcounter.com, http://gs.statcounter.com.
30. See Daisuke Wakabayashi and Adam Satariano, “How Looming Privacy Regulations May Strengthen Facebook and Google,” New York Times, April 24, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/23/technology/privacy-regulation-facebook-google.html.
31. “Recommendations for Implementing Transparency, Consent and Legitimate Interest Under the GDPR,” Centre for Information Policy Leadership, Hunton and Williams LLP, GDPR Implementation Project, May 19, 2017.
32. “Exclusive: Facebook to Put 1.5 Billion Users Out of Reach of New EU Privacy Law,” Reuters, April 19, 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-facebook-privacy-eu-exclusive/exclusive-facebook-to-change-user-terms-limiting-effect-of-eu-privacy-law-idUSKBN1HQ00P.
33. Elizabeth E. Joh, “Privacy Protests: Surveillance Evasion and Fourth Amendment Suspicion,” Arizona Law Review 55, no. 4 (2013): 997–1029; Jeffrey L. Vagle, “Furtive Encryption: Power, Trust, and the Constitutional Cost of Collective Surveillance,” Indiana Law Journal 90, no. 1 (2015), http://papers.ssrn.c
om/abstract=2550934.
34. “How to Be Invisible: 15 Anti-surveillance Gadgets & Wearables,” WebUrbanist, November 28, 2016, http://weburbanist.com/2016/11/28/how-to-be-invisible-15-anti-surveillance-designs-installations. For another relevant article, see “The Role of Hackers in Countering Surveillance and Promoting Democracy,” April 29, 2018, https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.cul.columbia.edu/docview/1719239523?pq-origsite=gscholar.
35. See Zach Sokol, “Hide from Surveillance by Wearing a Mask of This Artist’s Face,” Creators, May 7, 2014, https://creators.vice.com/en_us/article/pgqp87/hide-from-surveillance-by-wearing-a-mask-of-this-artists-face.
36. See “Backslash,” Backslash.com, August 4, 2018, http://www.backslash.cc.
37. Mehrdad Hessar et al., “Enabling On-Body Transmissions with Commodity Devices,” UBICOMP 16, September 12–16, 2016, Heidelberg, Germany.
38. See Adam Harvey, “Stealth Wear—Anti-drone Fasion,” ah projects, December 3, 2012, https://ahprojects.com/projects/stealth-wear.
39. See Benjamin Grosser, “Projects,” Benjamin Grosser, August 3, 2018, https://bengrosser.com/projects.
40. Cade Metz, “The Unsettling Performance That Showed the World Through AI’s Eyes,” Wired, April 30, 2017, https://www.wired.com/2017/04/unsettling-performance-showed-world-ais-eyes/; Thu-Huong Ha, “Ai Weiwei’s New Show Exposes the Creepy Consequences of Our Obsession with Posing for the Camera,” Quartz, April 29, 2018, https://qz.com/1000684/ai-weiwei-herzog-de-meuron-artwork-hansel-gretel-exposes-the-creepy-consequences-of-our-obsession-with-posing-for-the-camera.
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
1. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, ed. Edwin Cannan (New York: Modern Library, 1994), 485.
2. Friedrich August von Hayek, The Collected Works of Friedrich August Hayek, ed. William Warren Bartley (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 1:14.
3. Friedrich Hayek, “The Use of Knowledge in Society,” in Individualism and Economic Order (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980). See the discussion on 85–89.
The Age of Surveillance Capitalism Page 83