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Notes
Introduction
1. Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto, p. 82.
2. Berlin, ‘Disraeli and Marx’, p. 283.
3. Carlyle, Writings, p. 277. For the full quotations see epigraphs at the front of this book.
4. Ibid., p. 199. On the genesis of the idea of the ‘cash nexus’, see Heffer, Moral Desperado, pp. 95, 130, 169.
5. Millington, Wagner, pp. 223 f.
6. Holroyd, Shaw, vol. ii, pp. 11–13, quoting Shaw’s The Perfect Wagnerite (1899).
7. Marx, Capital, p. 928.
8. Ibid., p. 929.
9. Fontane, Stechlin, p. 77.
10. Maupassant, Bel-Ami, esp. p. 324.
11. Wheen, Marx, p. 268. Cf. ibid., p. 249 for evidence that the socialist leader Ferdinand Lassalle did the same.
12. See Blackbourn and Eley, Peculiarities of German History.
13. See Kehr, Primat der Innenpolitik, passim.
14. Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes, pp. 558–85.
15. As requested by the author, I am providing here the full source: © J. Bradford DeLong, ‘The Shape of Twentieth Century Economic History’, NBER Working Paper, 7569 (Feb. 2000), pp. 27 f.
16. Ibid., pp. 3, 8.
17. Ibid., pp. 12 f.
18. Ibid., p. 17.
19. Lipset, ‘Social Requisites of Democracy’, pp. 75–85.
20. Barro, ‘Determinants of Economic Growth’, p. 1.
21. Friedman, ‘Other Times, Other Places’, pp. 2, 29. See also pp. 54, 86.
22. Joll, Europe since 1870, p. 357.
23. Norpoth, ‘Economy’, p. 317.
24. Kennedy, Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, p. 567.
25. Ibid., pp. 696 f.
26. For a sceptical view see Almond, ‘1989 without Gorbachev’.
27. Fukuyama, Great Disruption, p. 282.
28. For a useful introduction, see Haigh, Taking Chances.
29. Pinker, How the Mind Works, p. 395.
30. Bernstein, Against the Gods, pp. 272 ff.
31. Spurling, La Grande Thérèse, p. 89.
32. Dawkins, Selfish Gene.
33. Freud, Civilization, War and Death.
34. Weber, Protestant Ethic.
35. Offer, ‘Between the Gift and the Market’.
36. See on this point Neal, ‘Shocking View of Economic History’, p. 332.
37. Dostoevsky, Notes from Underground, pp. 105–20.
38. See esp. North, Institutions.
39. Carlyle, ‘On History’, p. 95.
40. Ferguson, ‘Introduction: Towards a “Chaotic” Theory of the Past’. Cf. Shermer, ‘Exorcising Laplace’s Demon’.
41. Thoughts on the Late Transactions Respecting Falkland’s Islands (1771), quoted in Black, ‘Foreign and Defence Polices’, p. 290.
1. The Rise and Fall of the Warfare State
1. Bonney, ‘Introduction’, pp. 2 ff.
2. Goldsmith, Premodern Financial Systems, p. 33.
3. Quoted in Parker, ‘Emergence of Modern Finance’, p. 527.
4. Quoted in Luard, War in International Society, p. 240.
5. Ibid., p. 239.
6. Ibid., p. 248.
7. See e.g. ‘One of the few constancies in history is that the scale of commitment on military spending has always risen’: Mathias, First Industrial Nation, p. 44. In Paul Kennedy’s words: ‘The cost of a sixteenth century war could be measured in millions of pounds; by the late seventeenth century, it had risen to tens of millions of pounds; and at the close of the Napoleonic War the outgoings of the major combatants occasionally reached a hundred million pounds a year’: Kennedy, Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, p. 99.
8. Sorokin, Social and Cultural Dynamics, vol. iii.
9. Wright, Study of War.
10. Richardson, Statistics of Deadly Quarrels.
11. Luard, War in International Society, appendix.
12. Correlates of War database, www.umich.edu~cowproj. The database provides figures for total population, urban population, iron and steel production, energy consumption, military personnel and military expenditures. Earlier versions of the Correlates of War data can be found in Singer and Small, Wages of War and Resort to Arms.
13. Levy, War. Levy’s definition of which states were ‘great powers’ is rather subjective, but his analysis is nevertheless useful.
14. Luard, War in International Society. Adding all the wars listed in Luard’s appendix gives a figure of 1,021, but his own sub-totals in the main text imply a different total for reasons which are unclear.
15. Levy, War, pp. 97–9.
16. Wallensteen and Sollenberg, ‘Armed Conflict’.
17. Sollenberg, Wallensteen and Jato, ‘Major Armed Conflicts’. Cf. Financial Times, 15 June 2000.
18. See Brogan, World Conflicts, appendix 1.
19. See e.g. Hinsley, Power and the Pursuit of Peace, pp. 278 f.
20. Levy, War, p. 139. Cf. pp. 129–31.
21. Calculated from Luard, War in International Society, appendix.
22. The Ottoman Empire comes sixth (33), followed by Russia (28), Italy (meaning any Italian state: 22) and Germany (meaning any German state: 18).
23. Bond, Victorian Military Campaigns, pp. 309–11.
24. ‘Only one war of the post-Vienna period has lasted longer than seven years, whereas in the pre-Vienna period there were nearly twenty wars of this duration’: see Levy, War, pp. 116–29. Cf. Luard, War in International Society, p. 47.
25. ‘In the Seven Years’ War … there were 17 belligerents and 111 battles … The numbers in the First World War were 38 and 615’: Hinsley, Power and the Pursuit of Peace, pp. 278 f.
26. Luard, War in International Society, pp. 54 f. Luard identifies 30 ‘Wars of National Independence’ (though only 28 appear in his appendix), of which 20 were suppressed. He also identifies eighteen cases of ‘External Intervention in Civil War in Europe’, though the intention behind such interventions varied. In seven cases, intervention was on the side of the rebels, compared with ten when it was in support of the government. In all, nine liberal revolutions were suppressed.
27. Ibid., pp. 52–61.
28. Figures from Kennedy, Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, pp. 71, 128; McNeill, Pursuit of Power, p. 107; Mann, Sources of Social Power, vol. ii, p. 393, tables A1, A4.
29. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, pp. 79 ff.
30. Körner, ‘Expenditure’, p. 408.
31. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, pp. 120–43.
32. Ibid., pp. 161 f.
33. Ibid., pp. 178 ff.
34. Ibid., pp. 228 ff., 273 n.
35. Ibid., p. 350.
36. Ibid., pp. 357 ff.
37. Ibid., pp. 367–72.
38. Kaldor, Baroque Arsenal, quoted in Kennedy, Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, p. 570.
39. Kennedy, Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, pp. 570 f.
40. Ibid., p. 623.
41. Ibid., pp. 674 f.
42. Ibid., p. 572.
43. These figures are arrived at by deflating nominal defence spending by the consumer price index (CPI), and dividing that figure by the size of the armed forces. Of course, the CPI is not the ideal deflator for the defence budget, so the figures are necessarily very approximate. However, the long-run trend is clear enough.
44. Overy, Times Atlas of the Twentieth Century, pp. 102–5; Harrison, ‘Economics of World War II: An Overview’, pp. 3 f., 7 f., and ‘Soviet Union’, p. 291.
45. Calculated from figures in
Winter, Great War, p. 75.
46. Calculated from figures in Timechart Company, Timechart of Military History, pp. 112–27; Perrett (ed.), Battle Book.
47. Erickson, ‘Red Army Battlefield Performance’, p. 245. Cf. Beevor, Stalingrad.
48. Daily Telegraph, 15 March 2000; 13 April 2000.
49. Fieldhouse, ‘Nuclear Weapon Developments’.
50. On the basis of the 1993 Federal Budget Request: IISS, Military Balance, 1992–1993, p. 17.
51. Ibid., p. 218.
52. Creveld, Supplying War, pp. 233 f.
53. Quoted in Nef, War and Human Progress, p. 366.
54. Creveld, Supplying War, p. 200.
55. Ibid. pp. 216–30 and n. 23.
56. Overy, Why the Allies Won, p. 319.
57. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, pp. 225 ff.
58. Kubicek, ‘British Empansion, Empire and Technological Change’, pp. 254, 258.
59. Ibid., p. 261.
60. Burroughs, ‘Defence and Imperial Disunity’, p. 336.
61. At Omdurman in 1898 Kitchener’s army, equipped with 55 machine guns, killed 11,000 dervishes at a cost of 48 British troops lost. Contrary to popular belief – encouraged by Hilaire Belloc’s famous lines (‘Whatever happens, we have got / The Maxim Gun, and they have not’) – the Sudanese did have machine guns, but only two: Kubicek, ‘British Expansion, Empire and Technological Change’, p. 265.
62. Wall Street Journal, 19 April 1999.
63. HMS Dreadnought cost the equivalent of 0.12 per cent of Britain’s 1906 GDP; a B-2 cost 0.02 per cent of 1998 US GDP.
64. Goldsmith, Premodern Financial Systems, pp. 22, 31 f.
65. Ibid., pp. 48, 51.
66. Ibid., p. 79.
67. Körner, ‘Expenditure’, pp. 402 ff.
68. Ibid., pp. 416 f.
69. Goldsmith, Premodern Financial Systems, p. 193.
70. Hart, ‘Seventeenth Century’, p. 282; Capra, ‘Finances of the Austrian Monarchy’, pp. 295–7.
71. O’Brien, Power with Profit, pp. 34 f.
72. Mann, Sources of Social Power, vol. ii, p. 373, except for Britain, O’Brien, Power with Profit, pp. 34 f.
73. Mann, Sources of Social Power, vol. ii, p. 373.
74. Ibid.
75. Calculated from the figures in Mitchell and Deane, Abstract of British Historical Statistics, pp. 396–8.
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