14
A. Seaton, The Crimean War: A Russian Chronicle (London, 1977), p. 195.
15
Ibid., p. 196.
16
A. Khrushchev, Istoriia oborony Sevastopolia (St Petersburg, 1889), pp. 120–22; Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 2, pp. 344–7; Seaton, The Crimean War, p. 197.
17
M. O. Cullet, Un régiment de ligne pendant la guerre d’orient: Notes et souvenirs d’un officier d’infanterie 1854–1855–1856 (Lyon, 1894), pp. 199–203; Seaton, The Crimean War, p. 202; D. Stolypin, Iz lichnyh vospominanii o krymskoi voineiozemledel’cheskih poryadkakh (Moscow, 1874), pp. 12–16; I. Krasovskii, Iz vospominanii o voine 1853–56 (Moscow, 1874); P. Jaeger, Le mura di Sebastopoli: Gli italiani in Crimea 1855–56 (Milan, 1991), pp. 306–9.
18
Cullet, Un régiment, pp. 207–8.
19
Seaton, The Crimean War, p. 205; J. Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée: Lettres d’un officier français à sa famille pendant la campagne d’Orient (Paris, 1892), p. 318.
20
Jaeger, Le mura di Sebastopoli, p. 315; Loizillon, La Campagne de Crimée, pp. 168–70; M. Seacole, Wonderful Adventures of Mrs Seacole in Many Lands (London, 2005), p. 142; T. Buzzard, With the Turkish Army in the Crimea and Asia Minor (London, 1915), p. 145.
21
Seaton, The Crimean War, pp. 206–7.
22
Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, p. 321; N. Berg, Zapiski ob osade Sevastopolia, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1858), vol. 2, p. 1.
23
Vrochenskii, Sevastopol’skii razgrom, p. 201.
24
H. Small, The Crimean War: Queen Victoria’s War with the Russian Tsars (Stroud, 2007), pp. 169–70; Ershov, Sevastopol’skie vospominaniia, pp. 157, 242–3; Cullet, Un régiment, p. 220.
25
Za mnogo let: Zapiski (vospominaniia) neizvestnogo 1844–1874 gg. (St Petersburg, 1897), pp. 90–91; Giubbenet, Ocherk, p. 148.
26
RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5758, 1. 57; Vrochenskii, Sevastopol’skii razgrom, pp. 213–20; Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 2, pp. 360–61. On Russian intelligence from allied prisoners, see RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5687, 1. 7.
27
A. Niel, Siège de Sébastopol: Journal des opérations du génie (Paris, 1858), pp. 492–502; E. Perret, Les Français en orient: Récits de Crimée 1854–1856 (Paris, 1889), pp. 377–9; Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, pp. 328–9; V. Liaskoronskii, Vospominaniia Prokofiia Antonovicha Podpalova (Kiev, 1904), pp. 19–20; Tolstoy’s Letters, ed. and trans. by R. F. Christian, 2 vols. (London, 1978), vol. 1, p. 52.
28
RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5758, 11. 58–60; A. Viazmitinov, ‘Sevastopol’ ot 21 marta po 28 avgusta 1855 goda’, Russkaia starina, 34 (1882), pp. 55–6; Ershov, Sevastopol’skie vospominaniia, pp. 277–9.
29
J. Spilsbury, The Thin Red Line: An Eyewitness History of the Crimean War (London, 2005), p. 303.
30
Spilsbury, Thin Red Line, p. 304; C. Campbell, Letters from Camp to His Relatives during the Siege of Sebastopol (London, 1894), pp. 316–17; Clifford, Letters and Sketches, pp. 257–8.
31
RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5758, 1. 65.
32
M. Bogdanovich, Vostochnaia voina 1853–1856, 4 vols. (St Petersburg, 1876), vol. 4, p. 127.
33
RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5758, 1. 68; T. Tolycheva, Rasskazy starushki ob osade Sevastopolia (Moscow, 1881), pp. 87–90.
34
Tolstoy’s Letters, vol. 1, p. 52.
35
Sobranie pisem sester Krestovozdvizhenskoi obshchiny popecheniia o ranenykh (St Petersburg, 1855), pp. 74, 81–2.
36
Giubbenet, Ocherk, pp. 19, 152–3; The Times, 27 Sept. 1855.
37
Boniface, Campagnes de Crimée, pp. 295–6; Buzzard, With the Turkish Army, p. 193.
38
E. Vanson, Crimée, Italie, Mexique: Lettres de campagnes 1854–1867 (Paris, 1905), pp. 154, 161; NAM 2005–07–719 (Golaphy letter, 22 Sept. 1855).
39
WO 28/126; NAM 6807–379/4 (Panmure to Codrington, 9 Nov. 1855).
40
S. Tatishchev, Imperator Aleksandr II: Ego zhizn’ i tsarstvovanie, 2 vols. (St Petersburg, 1903), vol. 1, pp. 161–3.
41
RGVIA, f. 481, op. 1, d. 36, ll. 1–27; A. Tiutcheva, Pri dvore dvukh imperatov: Vospominaniia, dnevnik, 1853–1882 (Moscow, 1928–9), p. 65; W. Mosse, ‘How Russia Made Peace September 1855 to April 1856’, Cambridge Historical Journal, 11/3 (1955), p. 301; W. Baumgart, The Peace of Paris 1856: Studies in War, Diplomacy and Peacemaking (Oxford, 1981), p. 7.
42
Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 2, pp. 520–24; H. Sandwith, A Narrative of the Siege of Kars (London, 1856), pp. 104 ff.; Papers Relative to Military Affairs in Asiatic Turkey and the Defence and Capitulation of Kars: Presented to Both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty (London, 1856), p. 251; C. Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War (1853–1856)’, Ph.D. diss. (Sabanci University, 2007), pp. 197–223.
43
Mosse, ‘How Russia Made Peace’, pp. 302–3.
44
Baumgart, The Peace of Paris 1856, pp. 5–7.
45
BLMD, Add. MS 48579, Palmerston to Clarendon, 25 Sept. 1855.
46
Argyll, Duke of, Autobiography and Memoirs, 2 vols. (London, 1906), vol. 1, p. 492; The Greville Memoirs 1814–1860, ed. L. Strachey and R. Fulford, 8 vols. (London, 1938), vol. 7, p. 173.
47
BLMD, Add. MS 48579, Palmerston to Clarendon, 9 Oct. 1855.
48
C. Thoumas, Mes souvenirs de Crimée 1854–1856 (Paris, 1892), pp. 256–60; Lettres d’un soldat à sa mère de 1849 à 1870: Afrique, Crimée, Italie, Mexique (Montbéliard, 1910), pp. 106–8; Loizillon, La Campagne de Crimée, pp. xvii–xviii.
49
A. Gouttman, La Guerre de Crimée 1853–1856 (Paris, 1995), p. 460; L. Case, French Opinion on War and Diplomacy during the Second Empire (Philadelphia, 1954), pp. 39–40; R. Marlin, L’Opinion franc-comtoise devant la guerre de Crimée, Annales Littéraires de l’Université de Besançon, vol. 17 (Paris, 1957), p. 48.
50
W. Echard, Napoleon III and the Concert of Europe (Baton Range, La., 1983), pp. 50–51.
51
Gouttman, La Guerre de Crimée, p. 451; A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 (Oxford, 1955), p. 78.
52
Mosse, ‘How Russia Made Peace’, p. 303.
53
BLMD, Add. MS 48579, Palmerston to Clarendon, 1 Dec. 1855; Baumgart, The Peace of Paris, p. 33.
54
Mosse, ‘How Russia Made Peace’, p. 304.
55
Ibid., pp. 305–6.
56
Ibid., pp. 306–13.
57
Boniface, Campagnes de Crimée, p. 336.
58
D. Noël, La Vie de bivouac: Lettres intimes (Paris, 1860), p. 254.
59
Liaskoronskii, Vospominaniia, pp. 23–4.
CHAPTER 12. PARIS AND THE NEW ORDER
1
E. Gourdon, Histoire du Congrès de Paris (Paris, 1857), pp. 479–82.
2
W. Baumgart, The Peace of Paris 1856: Studies in War, Diplomacy and Peacemaking (Oxford, 1981), p. 104.
3
P. Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert (Ithaca, NY, 1972), p. 347; BLMD, Add. MS 48579, Palmerston to Clarendon, 25 Feb. 1856.
4
Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War, p. 348; W. Echard, Napoleon III and the Concert of Europe (Baton Rouge, La., 1983), p. 59.
5
FO 78/1170, Stratford Canning to Clarendon, 9 Jan. 1856; Baumgart, The Peace of Paris 1856, pp. 128–30.
6
Ibid., pp. 140–41; BLMD, Add. MS 48579, Palmerston to Clarendo
n, 4 Mar. 1856; M. Kukiel, Czartoryski and European Unity 1770–1861 (Princeton, 1955), p. 302.
7
Gourdon, Histoire, pp. 523–5.
8
RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5917, 11. 1–2; J. Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée: Lettres d’un officier français à sa famille pendant la campagne d’Orient (Paris, 1892), p. 402; BLMD, Add. MS 48580, Palmerston to Clarendon, 24 Mar. 1856.
9
NAM 1968–07–380–65 (Codrington letter, 15 July 1856).
10
The Times, 26 July 1856.
11
RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5838, 11. 10–12; NAM 6807–375–16 (Vote of thanks to Codrington, undated).
12
M. Kozelsky, ‘Casualties of Conflict: Crimean Tatars during the Crimean War’, Slavic Review, 67/4 (2008), pp. 866–91.
13
M. Kozelsky, Christianizing Crimea: Shaping Sacred Space in the Russian Empire and Beyond (De Kalb, Ill., 2010), p. 153. For more on the statistics of the emigration, see A. Fisher, ‘Emigration of Muslims from the Russian Empire in the Years after the Crimean War’, Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, 35/3 (1987), pp. 356–71. The highest recent estimate is ‘at least 300,000’, in J. McCarthy, Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims 1821–1922 (Princeton, 1995), p. 17.
14
Kozelsky, Christianizing Crimea, p. 151.
15
Ibid., p. 155; A. Fisher, Between Russians, Ottomans and Turks: Crimea and Crimean Tatars (Istanbul, 1998), p. 127.
16
BLMD, Add. MS 48580, Palmerston to Clarendon, 24 Mar. 1856.
17
FO 195/562, ‘Report on the Political and Military State of the Turkish Frontier in Asia’, 16 Nov. 1857; FO 97/424, Dickson to Russell, 17 Mar. 1864; Papers Respecting Settlement of Circassian Emigrants in Turkey, 1863–64 (London, 1864).
18
McCarthy, Death and Exile, pp. 35–6.
19
FO 78/1172, Stratford to Clarendon, 31 Jan. 1856; Journal de Constantinople, 4 Feb. 1856; Lady E. Hornby, Constantinople during the Crimean War (London, 1863), pp. 205–8; C. Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War (1853–1856)’, Ph.D. diss. (Sabanci University, 2007), p. 290; D. Blaisdell, European Financial Control in the Ottoman Empire (New York, 1929), p. 74.
20
Badem, ‘The Ottomans’, pp. 291–2.
21
Ibid., pp. 281–3; R. Davison, ‘Turkish Attitudes Concerning Christian–Muslim Equality in the 19th Century’, American Historical Review, 59 (1953–4), pp. 862–3.
22
Ibid., p. 861.
23
FO 195/524, Finn to Clarendon, 10, 11, 14 and 29 Apr., 2 May, 6 June 1856; 13 Feb. 1857; E. Finn (ed.), Stirring Times, or, Records from Jerusalem Consular Chronicles of 1853 to 1856, 2 vols. (London 1878), vol. 2, pp. 424–40.
24
Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches in Turkey, 2 vols. (London, 1854–6), vol. 2, p. 119; FO 78/1171, Stratford to Porte, 23 Dec. 1856.
25
FO 195/524, Finn to Stratford, 22 July 1857; Finn, Stirring Times, vol. 2, pp. 448–9.
26
See H. Wood, ‘The Treaty of Paris and Turkey’s Status in International Law’, American Journal of International Law, 37/2 (Apr. 1943), pp. 262–74.
27
W. Mosse, The Rise and Fall of the Crimean System, 1855–1871: The Story of the Peace Settlement (London, 1963), p. 40.
28
BLMD, Add. MS 48580, Palmerston to Clarendon, 7 Aug. 1856; Mosse, The Rise and Fall, pp. 55 ff.
29
Ibid., p. 93.
30
G. Thurston, ‘The Italian War of 1859 and the Reorientation of Russian Foreign Policy’, Historical Journal, 20/1 (Mar. 1977), pp. 125–6.
31
C. Cavour, Il carteggio Cavour-Nigra dal 1858 al 1861: A cura della R. Commissione Editrice, 4 vols. (Bologna, 1926), vol. 1, p. 116.
32
Mosse, The Rise and Fall, p. 121.
33
K. Cook, ‘Russia, Austria and the Question of Italy, 1859–1862’, International History Review, 2/4 (Oct. 1980), pp. 542–65; FO 65/574, Napier to Russell, 13 Mar. 1861.
34
A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 (Oxford, 1955), p. 85.
35
A. Tiutcheva, Pri dvore dvukh imperatov: Vospominaniia, dnevnik, 1853–1882 (Moscow, 1928–9), p. 67; A. Kelly, Toward Another Shore: Russian Thinkers between Necessity and Chance (New Haven, 1998), p. 41.
36
Tolstoy’s Diaries, vol. 1: 1847–1894, ed. and trans. R. F. Christian (London, 1985), pp. 96–7.
37
M. Vygon, Krymskie stranitsy zhizni i tvorchestva L. N. Tolstogo (Simferopol, 1978), pp. 29–30, 45–6; H. Troyat, Tolstoy (London, 1970), p. 168.
38
Kelly, Toward Another Shore, p. 41; Vygon, Krymskie stranitsy, p. 37.
39
IRL, f. 57, op. 1, n. 7, 1. 16; RGIA, f. 914, op. 1, d. 68, 11. 1–2.
40
F. Dostoevskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 30 vols. (Leningrad, 1972–88), vol. 18, p. 57.
41
N. Danilov, Istoricheskii ocherk razvitiia voennogo upravleniia v Rossii (St Petersburg, 1902), prilozhenie 5; Za mnogo let: Zapiski (vospominaniia) neizvestnogo 1844–1874 gg. (St Petersburg, 1897), pp. 136–7.
42
E. Brooks, ‘Reform in the Russian Army, 1856–1861’, Slavic Review, 43/1 (Spring 1984), pp. 66–78.
43
Quoted in J. Frank, Dostoevsky: The Years of Ordeal, 1850–1859 (London, 1983), p. 182.
44
E. Steinberg, ‘Angliiskaia versiia o “russkoi ugroze” v XIX–XX vv’, in Problemy metodologii i istochnikovedeniia istorii vneshnei politiki Rossii, sbornik statei (Moscow, 1986), pp. 67–9; R. Shukla, Britain, India and the Turkish Empire, 1853–1882 (New Delhi, 1973), pp. 19–20; The Politics of Autocracy: Letters of Alexander II to Prince A. I. Bariatinskii, ed. A. Rieber (The Hague, 1966), pp. 74–81.
45
M. Petrovich, The Emergence of Russian Panslavism, 1856–1870 (New York, 1956), pp. 117–18.
46
D. MacKenzie, ‘Russia’s Balkan Policies under Alexander II, 1855–1881’, in H. Ragsdale (ed.), Imperial Russian Foreign Policy (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 223–6.
47
Ibid., pp. 227–8.
48
Lord P. Kinross, Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire (London, 1977), p. 509.
49
A. Saab, Reluctant Icon: Gladstone, Bulgaria, and the Working Classes, 1856–1878 (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), pp. 65–7.
50
Ibid., p. 231.
51
F. Dostoevsky, A Writer’s Diary, trans. K. Lantz, 2 vols. (London, 1995), vol. 2, pp. 899–900.
52
Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, p. 253; The Times, 17 July 1878.
53
Finn, Stirring Times, vol. 2, p. 452.
54
FO 195/524, Finn to Canning, 29 Apr. 1856.
EPILOGUE
1
RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1856, 11 and 13 Mar.
2
T. Margrave, ‘Numbers & Losses in the Crimea: An Introduction. Part Three: Other Nations’, War Correspondent, 21/3 (2003), pp. 18–22.
3
R. Burns, John Bell: The Sculptor’s Life and Works (Kirstead, 1999), pp. 54–5.
4
T. Pakenham, The Boer War (London, 1979), p. 201.
5
N. Hawthorne, The English Notebooks, 1853–1856 (Columbus, Oh., 1997), p. 149.
6
‘Florence Nightingale’, Punch, 29 (1855), p. 225.
7
S. Markovits, The Crimean War in the British Imagination (Cambridge, 2009), p. 68; J. Bratton, ‘Theatre of War: The Crimea on the London Stage 1854–55’, in D. Brady, L. James and B. Sharatt (eds.), Performance and Politics in
Popular Drama: Aspects of Popular Entertainment in Theatre, Film and Television 1800–1976 (Cambridge, 1980), p. 134.
8
M. Bostridge, Florence Nightingale: The Woman and Her Legend (London, 2008), pp. 523–4, 528; M. Poovey, ‘A Housewifely Woman: The Social Construction of Florence Nightingale’, in id., Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Victorian Fiction (London, 1989), pp. 164–98.
9
W. Knollys, The Victoria Cross in the Crimea (London, 1877), p. 3.
10
S. Beeton, Our Soldiers and the Victoria Cross: A General Account of the Regiments and Men of the British Army: And Stories of the Brave Deeds which Won the Prize ‘For Valour’ (London, n.d.), p. vi.
11
Markovits, The Crimean War, p. 70.
12
T. Hughes, Tom Brown’s Schooldays (London, n.d.), pp. 278–80.
13
T. Hughes, Tom Brown at Oxford (London, 1868), p. 169.
14
O. Anderson, ‘The Growth of Christian Militarism in Mid-Victorian Britain’, English Historical Review, 86/338 (1971), pp. 46–72; K. Hendrickson, Making Saints: Religion and the Public Image of the British Army, 1809–1885 (Cranbury, NJ, 1998), pp. 9–15; M. Snape, The Redcoat and Religion: The Forgotten History of the British Soldier from the Age of Marlborough to the Eve of the First World War (London, 2005), pp. 90–91, 98.
15
Memorials of Captain Hedley Vicars, Ninety-Seventh Regiment (London, 1856), pp. x, 216–17.
16
Quoted in Markovits, The Crimean War, p. 92.
17
M. Lalumia, Realism and Politics in Victorian Art of the Crimean War (Epping, 1984), pp. 80–86.
18
Ibid., pp. 125–6.
19
Ibid., pp. 136–44; P. Usherwood and J. Spencer-Smith, Lady Butler, Battle Artist, 1846–1933 (London, 1987), pp. 29–31.
20
Mrs H. Sandford, The Girls’ Reading Book (London, 1875), p. 183.
21
See e.g. R. Basturk, Bilim ve Ahlak (Istanbul, 2009).
22
Genelkurmay Askeri Tarih ve Stratejik Etüt Bakanlıı, Selçuklular Döneminde Anadoluya Yapılan Akınlar–1799–1802 Osmanlı-Fransız Harbinde Akka Kalesi Savunması–1853–1856 Osmanlı-Rus Kırım Harbi Kafkas Cephesi (Ankara, 1981), quoted in C. Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War (1853–1856)’, Ph.D. diss. (Sabanci University, 2007), pp. 20–21 (translation altered for clarity).
23
A. Khrushchev, Istoriia oborony Sevastopolia (St Petersburg, 1889), pp. 159–6.
The Crimean War Page 64