Before the Dawn: Recovering the Lost History of Our Ancestors

by Nicholas Wade

  160 Francesco Salamini et al., “Genetics and Geography of Wild Cereal Domestication in the Near East.”

  161 Christopher S. Troy et al., “Genetic Evidence for Near-Eastern Origins of European Cattle,” Nature 410:1088-1091 (2001).

  162 Carlos Vilà et al., “Widespread Origins of Domestic Horse Lineages,” Science 291:474-477 (2001).

  163 Ornella Semino et al., “The Genetic Legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in Extant Europeans: A Y Chromosome Perspective,” Science 290:1155-1159 (2000).

  164 Roy King and Peter A. Underhill, “Congruent Distribution of Neolithic Painted Pottery and Ceramic Figurines with Y-Chromosome Lineages,” Antiquity 76:707-714 (2002).

  165 Albano Beja-Pereira et al., “Gene-Culture Coevolution between Cattle Milk Protein Genes and Human Lactase Genes,” Nature Genetics 35:311-315 (2003).

  166 Nabil Sabri Enattah et al., “Identification of a Variant Associated with Adult-type Hypolactasia,” Nature Genetics 30:233-237 (2002).

  167 Todd Bersaglieri et al., “Genetic Signatures of Strong Recent Positive Selection at the Lactase Gene,” American Journal of Human Genetics 74:1111-1120 (2004).

  168 Charlotte A. Mulcare et al., “The T Allele of a Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism 13.9 kb Upstream of the Lactase Gene (LCT) (C-13.9kbT) Does Not Predict or Cause the Lactase-Persistence Phenotype in Africans,” American Journal of Human Genetics 74:1102-1110 (2004).

  169 Napoleon Chagnon, “Life Histories, Blood Revenge, and Warfare in a Tribal Population,” Science 239:985-992 (1988).

  170 Anne E. Pusey, in Frans B. M. de Waal, ed., Tree of Origin, Harvard University Press 2001, p. 21.

  171 John C. Mitani, David P. Watts, and Martin N. Muller, “Recent Developments in the Study of Wild Chimpanzee Behavior,” Evolutionary Anthropology 11: 9-25 (2002).

  172 Anne E. Pusey, Tree of Origin, p. 26.

  173 Julie L. Constable, Mary V. Ashley, Jane Goodall, and Anne E. Pusey, “Noninvasive Paternity Assignment in Gombe Chimpanzees,” Molecular Ecology 10:1279-1300 (2001).

  174 Anne Pusey, Jennifer Williams, and Jane Goodall, “The Influence of Dominance Rank on the Reproductive Success of Female Chimpanzees,” Science 277:828-831 (1997).

  175 A. Whiten et al., “Cultures in Chimpanzees,” Nature 399:682 (1999).

  176 W. C. McGrew, “Tools Compared,” in Richard W. Wrangham et al., eds., Chimpanzee Cultures, Harvard University Press, 1994, p. 25.

  177 Richard W. Wrangham et al., Demonic Males, Houghton Mifflin, 1996, p. 226.

  178 Some experts argue that chimps are derived from bonobos, but the direction of change makes no difference here.

  179 Frans de Waal, Our Inner Ape, Riverhead Books, 2005, p. 221.

  180 John C. Mitani, David P. Watts, and Martin N. Muller, “Recent Developments in the Study of Wild Chimpanzee Behavior,” Evolutionary Anthropology 11:9-25 (2002).

  181 Napoleon A. Chagnon, Yanomamo, 5th ed., Wadsworth, 1997, p. 189.

  182 Ibid., p. 97.

  183 Lawrence H. Keeley, War before Civilization, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 174.

  184 Ibid., p. 33.

  185 Steven A. LeBlanc, Constant Battles, St. Martin’s Press, 2003, p. 8.

  186 Simon Mead et al., “Balancing Selection at the Prion Protein Gene Consistent with Prehistoric Kurulike Epidemics,” Science 300:640-643 (2003).

  187 Edward O. Wilson, On Human Nature, Harvard University Press, 1978, p. 114.

  188 Louise Barrett, Robin Dunbar, and John Lycett, Human Evolutionary Psychology, Princeton University Press, 2002, p. 64.

  189 Napoleon A. Chagnon, Yanomamo, 5th ed., Wadsworth, 1997, p. 76.

  190 Napoleon Chagnon, “Life Histories, Blood Revenge, and Warfare in a Tribal Population,” Science 239:985-992 (1988).

  191 Napoleon A. Chagnon, Yanomamo, p. 77.

  192 David M. Buss, Evolutionary Psychology, 2nd ed., Pearson Education, 2004, p. 257.

  193 Robert L. Trivers, “The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism,” Quarterly Review of Biology 46:35-57, 1971.

  194 Following Steven Pinker, How the Mind Works, W. W. Norton, 1997, pp. 404-405.

  195 Matt Ridley, The Origins of Virtue, Viking, 1996, p. 197.

  196 Paul Seabright, “The Company of Strangers: A Natural History of Economic Life,” Princeton University Press, 2004, p. 28.

  197 Michael Kosfeld et al., “Oxytocin Increases Trust in Humans,” Nature 435:673-676 (2005).

  198 Roy A. Rappaport, “The Sacred in Human Evolution,” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 2:23-44 (1971).

  199 Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery, “The Coevolution of Ritual and Society: New 14C Dates from Ancient Mexico,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 18252-18261 (2004).

  200 Richard Sosis, “Why Aren’t We all Hutterites?” Human Nature 14:91-127 (2003).

  201 Edward O. Wilson, On Human Nature, Harvard University Press, 1978, p. 175.

  202 Frank W. Marlowe, “A Critical Period for Provisioning by Hadza Men: Implications for Pair Bonding,” Evolution and Human Behavior 24:217-229 (2003).

  203 Tim Birkhead, Promiscuity, Harvard University Press, 2000, p. 41.

  204 Nicholas Wade, “Battle of the Sexes is Discerned in Sperm,” New York Times, February 22, 2000, p. F1.

  205 Alan F. Dixson, Primate Sexuality, Oxford University Press, 1998, p. 218.

  206 Gerald J. Wyckoff, Wen Wang, and Chung-I Wu, “Rapid Evolution of Male Reproductive Genes in the Descent of Man,” Nature 403:304-309 (2000).

  207 Sperm generally survive for less than forty-eight hours in the human female reproductive tract, although survival times up to five days occasionally occur. Tim Birkhead, Promiscuity, p. 67.

  208 Robin Baker, Sperm Wars, Basic Books, 1996, p. 38. Baker has contributed several novel findings to this field but some have not survived challenge by other researchers; see Birkhead, as cited, pp. 23-29.

  209 W. H. James, “The Incidence of Superfecundation and of Double Paternity in the General Population,” Acta Geneticae Medicae et Gemellologiae 42:257-262 (1993).

  210 R. E. Wenk et al., “How Frequent is Heteropaternal Superfecundation?” Acta Geneticae Medicae et Gemellologiae 41:43-47 (1992).

  211 Louise Barrett, Robin Dunbar, and John Lycett, Human Evolutionary Psychology, Princeton University Press, 2002, p. 181.

  212 Bobbi S. Low, Why Sex Matters, Princeton University Press, 2000, p. 80.

  213 David M. Buss, Evolutionary Psychology, 2nd ed., Pearson Education, 2004, p. 112.

  214 Ibid., p. 117.

  215 Geoffrey Miller, The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature, Doubleday, 2000.

  216 Marta Mirazón Lahr, The Evolution of Modern Human Diversity: A Study of Cranial Variation, Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 263.

  217 Ibid., p. 337.

  218 Marta Mirazón Lahr and Richard V. S. Wright, “The Question of Robusticity and the Relationship Between Cranial Size and Shape in Homo sapiens,” Journal of Human Evolution 31:157-191 (1996).

  219 Helen M. Leach, “Human Domestication Reconsidered,” Current Anthropology 44:349-368 (2003).

  220 Ibid., p. 360.

  221 Richard Wrangham, interview, Edge, February 2, 2002, www.edge.org.

  222 Allen W. Johnson and Timothy Earle, The Evolution of Human Societies, 2nd ed., Stanford University Press, 2000.

  223 www.who.int/whr/2004/annex/topic/en/annex_2_en.pdf

  224 Derek V. Exner et al., “Lesser Response to Angiotensin-converting-enzyme Inhibitor Therapy in Black as Compared with White Patients with Left Ventricular Dysfunction, New England Journal of Medicine 344:1351-1357 (2001).

  225 Anne L. Taylor et al., “Combination of Isosorbide Dinitrate and Hydralazine in Blacks with Heart Failure,” New England Journal of Medicine 351:2049-2057, 2004; Nicholas Wade, “Race-Based Medicine Continued,” New York Times November 14, 2004, Section 4, p. 12.

  226 Robert S. Schwartz, “Racial Profiling in Medical Research,” New England Journal of Medici
ne 344:1392-1393 (2001).

  227 “Genes, Drugs and Race,” Nature Genetics 29:239 (2001).

  228 Neil Risch, Esteban Burchard, Elav Ziv, and Hua Tang, “Categorization of Humans in Biomedical Research: Genes, Race and Disease,” genomebiology.com/2002/3/7/comment/2007

  229 Agnar Helgason et al., “An Icelandic Example of the Impact of Population Structure on Association Studies,” Nature Genetics 37:90-95 (2005); Nicholas Wade, “Where Are You From? For Icelanders, the Answer Is in the Genes,” New York Times, December 28, 2004, p. F3.

  230 Rebecca L. Lamason et al., “SLC24A5, a Putative Cation Exchanger, Affects Pigmentation in Zebrafish and Humans,” Science 310:1782-1786 (2005).

  231 Noah A. Rosenberg et al., “Genetic Structure of Human Populations,” Science 298:2381-2385 (2002).

  232 Nicholas Wade, “Gene Study Identifies 5 Main Human Populations, Linking Them to Geography,” New York Times, December 20, 2002, p. A37.

  233 In the forensic system used in the United States, a suspect’s genome is analyzed at 13 specific sites and the number of repeats is counted. At any one site, there may be many people who possess the same number of repeats. Far fewer people have the same number at two sites. And the likelihood of any two people in the U.S. population having the same repeat number at all 13 sites is so small that everyone save identical twins is assumed to have their own unique set of repeats. (The number of repeats at each site is in fact a pair of numbers, one from the chromosome inherited from the mother, the other from the father’s, but they are often the same.)

  234 Nicholas Wade, “For Sale: A DNA Test to Measure Racial Mix,” New York Times, October 1, 2002, p. F4.

  235 Nicholas Wade, “Unusual Use of DNA Aided in Serial Killer Search,” New York Times, June 2, 2003, p. A28.

  236 Richard Lewontin, Human Diversity, W. H. Freeman, 1995, p. 123.

  237 Statement adopted by the council of the American Sociological Association, August 9, 2002; available on www.asanet.org.

  238 American Anthropological Association statement on “Race,” May 17, 1998; www.aaanet.org.

  239 Quoted by Henry Harpending and Alan R. Rogers in “Genetic Perspectives on Human Origins and Differentiation,” Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 1:361-385 (2000).

  240 David L. Hartl and Andrew G. Clark, Principles of Population Genetics, 3rd ed., Sinauer Associates, 1997, p. 119.

  241 Patrick D. Evans et al., “Microcephalin, a Gene Regulating Brain Size, Continues to Evolve Adaptively in Humans,” Science 309:1717-1720 (2005).

  242 Nitzan Mekel-Bobrov, “Ongoing Adaptive Evolution of ASPM, a Brain Size Determinant in Homo sapiens,” Science 309:1720-1722 (2005).

  243 John H. Relethford, “Apportionment of Global Human Genetic Diversity Based on Craniometrics and Skin Color,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118:393-398 (2002).

  244 Henry Harpending and Alan R. Rogers, “Genetic Perspectives on Human Origins and Differentiation,” 1:380.

  245 Nicholas Wade, “Race-Based Medicine Continued,” New York Times, November 14, 2004, Section 4, p. 12.

  246 Jon Entine, Taboo, Public Affairs, 2000, p. 34.

  247 Ibid., pp. 39-40.

  248 Jon Entine, “The Straw Man of ‘Race,’” World & I, September 2001, p. 309.

  249 John Manners, “Kenya’s Running Tribe,” available online at www.umist.ac.uk

  250 Ibid.

  251 Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel, W. W. Norton, 1997, p. 25.

  252 Richard Klein, The Human Career, 2nd ed., University of Chicago Press, 1999, p. 502.

  253 Robin I. M. Dunbar, “The Origin and Subsequent Evolution of Language,” in Morten H. Christiansen and Simon Kirby, Language Evolution, Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 231.

  254 Judges 12:5-6.

  255 Denis Mack Smith, Medieval Sicily, Chatto & Windus, 1968, p. 71.

  256 William A. Foley, “The Languages of New Guinea,” Annual Review of Anthropology 29:357-404 (2000).

  257 Jonathan Adams and Marcel Otte, “Did Indo-European Languages Spread before Farming?” Current Anthropology 40:73-77 (1999).

  258 Jared Diamond and Peter Bellwood, “Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions,” Science 300:597-603 (2003).

  259 Christopher Ehret, O. Y. Keita, and Paul Newman, “Origins of Afroasiatic,” Science 306:1680-1681 (2004).

  260 Christopher Ehret, “Language Family Expansions: Broadening Our Understandings of Cause from an African Perspective,” in Peter Bellwood and Colin Renfrew, eds., Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2002, p. 173.

  261 Colin Renfrew, Archaeology and Language, Jonathan Cape, 1987.

  262 L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, and Alberto Piazza, The History and Geography of Human Genes, Princeton University Press, 1994, pp. 296-299.

  263 Ibid., p. 299.

  264 Marek Zvelebil, “Demography and Dispersal of Early Farming Populations at the Mesolithic-Neolithic Transition: Linguistic and Genetic Implications,” in Peter Bellwood and Colin Renfrew, ed., Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2002, p. 381.

  265 Colin Renfrew, April McMahon, and Larry Trask, eds., Time Depth in Historical Linguistics , McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2000.

  266 Bill J. Darden, “On the Question of the Anatolian Origin of Indo-Hittite,” in Great Anatolia and the Indo-Hittite Language Family, Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph No. 38, Institute for the Study of Man, 2001.

  267 Mark Pagel, “Maximum-Likelihood Methods for Glottochronology and for Reconstructing Linguistic Phylogenies,” in Colin Renfrew, April McMahon, and Larry Trask, eds., Time Depth in Historical Linguistics, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2000, p. 198.

  268 K. Bergsland and H. Vogt, “On the Validity of Glottochronology,” Current Anthropology 3:115-153 (1962).

  269 Russell D. Gray and Quentin D. Atkinson, “Language-Tree Divergence Times Support the Anatolian Theory of Indo-European Origin,” Nature 426:435-439 (2003).

  270 Peter Forster and Alfred Toth, “Toward a Phylogenetic Chronology of Ancient Gaulish, Celtic and Indo European,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100:9079-9084 (2003).

  271 Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse, eds., African Languages, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 1.

  272 Christopher Ehret, “Language and History,” in Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse, eds., African Languages, Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp. 272-298; “Testing the Expectations of Glottochronology against the Correlations of Language and Archaeology in Africa,” in Colin Renfrew, April McMahon, and Larry Trask, eds., Time Depth in Historical Linguistics, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2000, pp. 373-401.

  273 Richard J. Hayward, “Afroasiatic,” in Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse, eds., African Languages , Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp. 79-98.

  274 Christopher Ehret, “Language and History,” in Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse, eds., African Languages, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 290.

  275 Nicholas Wade, “Joseph Greenberg, 85, Singular Linguist, Dies,” New York Times, May 15, 2001, p. A23.

  276 Joseph H. Greenberg, “Language in the Americas,” Stanford University Press, 1987.

  277 L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, and Alberto Piazza, The History and Geography of Human Genes, Princeton University Press, 1994, pp. 317, 96.

  278 Ibid., p. 99.

  279 L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, Eric Minch, and J. L. Mountain, “Coevolution of Genes and Languages Revisited,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 89:5620-5624, (1992).

  280 M. Lionel Bender, in Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse, eds., African Languages, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 54.

  281 The example is adapted from Lyle Campbell, Historical Linguistics, MIT Press, 1999, p. 111.

  282 Richard Hayward, in Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse, eds., African Languages, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 86.

&
nbsp; 283 Nicholas Wade, “Scientist at Work: Joseph H. Greenberg; What We All Spoke When the World Was Young,” New York Times, February 1, 2000, p. F1.

  284 Joseph H. Greenberg, Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives, Volume 1: Grammar, Stanford University Press, 2000, p. 217.

  285 Joseph H. Greenberg, Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives, Volume 2: Lexicon, Stanford University Press, 2002.