The Gene
Page 74
radiation and rate of, 115–16, 301
risk for a disease linked to, 455n
schizophrenia with, 299, 443–44, 445n, 445
as statistical concept, 264
variation generated by, 105–06, 110, 181, 261, 264
myc gene, in humans, 405
Myers, Richard, 336
Myriad Genetics, 439
Nagasaki Japan, atomic bombing (1945) of, 301
Nägeli, Carl von, 54–55, 59
Napoléon, 35
National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 227, 238, 298
National Cancer Institute, 371, 438
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 168, 275
ADA deficiency gene therapy and, 423–25
AIDS-focused research and, 375
conference on genetic research by, 197–98
Human Genome Project under, 404, 304–05, 306, 308, 309, 310
recombinant DNA guidelines from, 231, 236, 243
natural ambiguity, 194
natural history
belief in divine role in, 29, 30, 35, 42
Darwin’s interest in, 28–30, 31
Herschel on cause-and-effect mechanisms in, 29–30
Paley’s approach to, 29
parson-naturalists and, 30–31
Natural Science Society, Brno, 53
natural selection
Darwin’s use of, 37–38, 37n, 39–40, 61, 104
de Vries on spontaneous mutants in, 61
evolution and, 40–41, 104–05, 331
Galton’s use of selective breeding to influence, 64, 73
Malthus’s theory of, 37
mutation transmission and, 421
natural variation needed for, 104–05
temperature as factor in, 106
Wallace on evolution and, 39
Natural Theology (Paley), 29
Nature (journal), 158, 218, 228, 286, 320, 321
nature, immutability of, 292
nature versus nurture, 8, 67, 128, 292, 297, 346–47, 364, 403, 481
Nazi Germany, 119–25
applied biology (applied genetics) in, 119, 120
eugenics programs in, 13, 76, 109, 124, 138
euthanasia program for genetic defectives in, 13, 122–24
Hitler’s rise in, 119–20
Hongerwinter (Hunger Winter) in Netherlands and, 393–94
racial cleansing laws in, 76–77, 121–22
racial extermination programs in, 124–25
racial hygiene beliefs in, 76–77, 120–21, 502
renunciation of eugenics use by, 138
scientists leaving Germany as reaction to, 130, 131, 146
sterilization programs in, 120, 121–22, 123, 124, 125, 129
twin studies used by, 128, 129–30, 129n, 380
Neanderthals, 332–33, 339, 340
negative eugenics
preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) and, 456
prenatal testing and selective abortion as aspects of, 273
selective sterilization in, 75, 76
sexual selection for male children as, 456–57
Negrette, Américo, 285
Neimöller, Martin, 125
nematodes (C. elegans), genome sequencing of, 191, 194, 313, 315
neo-eugenics (newgenetics), 272–77
criticism of, 273–74, 275–76
genes as units of selection in, 273
genetic screening and, 272–73
older eugenics differentiated from, 272–73, 275
selecting against genetic disorders using, 273–74
support for, 274–75
technologies for identifying genes in, 276–77
Netherlands, Hongerwinter (Hunger Winter) in, 393–94, 395, 405–06
neuromuscular disease, genetic diagnosis of, 450–52, 453
neutrons, 140
New England Journal of Medicine, 260, 466
new species formation
Darwin’s research on bird population evolution and, 37–38, 45n
Dobzhansky’s genetic variant experiments and, 105–08
geographic factors affecting isolation and interbreeding and, 45n, 108–09
Herschel’s speculations on, 29–30
as “mystery of mysteries,” 30
New York Times, 237, 259, 300, 343, 460, 465, 479, 491
New Yorker (magazine), 348
Newsweek (magazine), 237, 300
Newton, Isaac, 44, 74, 172, 449
next-generation DNA sequencing, 443, 445
Nicholas II, Czar of Russia, 98, 100
NIH. See National Institutes of Health
Nikolaevich, Alexei, czarevitch of Russia, 99, 100, 465
Nirenberg, Marshall, 168, 259, 426
nitrogen, oxygen transformed from, 140
Nixon, Richard, 232
Nobel Prizes, 24, 97, 130, 139, 143, 145, 159, 163, 217, 221–22, 236, 241, 259, 274, 398
Noel, Walter, 170, 173, 178
noncoding genes, 314, 455n
Non-Invasive Prenatal Testing (NIPT), 490n
normalcy
biological imperatives for diversity balanced against human desire for, 481
eugenic sterilizations to maintain, 81–82
gene-environment interaction and, 258
moral issues in focus on, 331, 349, 458
parents and social engineering choices for, 461
shift in genetics from pathology focus to being science of normalcy, 330
normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH), 256–57
Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology, and Human Nature (Lewontin), 372–73
nuclear transfer, 396–98, 398n, 402, 489
nucleic acids, 134–35, 137, 146, 180, 413
nuclein, 135
Nuremberg Laws for the Protection of the Hereditary Health of the German People (Germany), 121–22
nurse cells, in ES cell cultivation, 468
Nüsslein-Volhard, Christiane, 188–89
Obama, Barack, 476
Obesity, 261, 262, 394, 406, 487, 491
Ochoa, Severo, 168
Office of Science and Technology, 232
Olson, Maynard, 312
Olympia (film), 121
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (Darwin)
Agassiz’s theory of multiple origins challenged by, 331–32
Galton’s study of, 65
human descent mentioned in, 332, 372
publication of, 39–40, 502
reviews of, 40, 44, 53, 332
operons, 176, 176n, 177
Orestes myth, 21
organelles, 293, 337, 398n
original sin, in Christian inheritance theory, 25
origin theories
Agassiz’s theory of multiple origins and, 331–32
Christian belief in divine involvement in, 30, 35–36
Herschel on cause-and-effect mechanisms in, 29–30
Laplace on natural forces in, 35
as “mystery of mysteries,” 30
Paley’s approach to, 29
parson-naturalists and, 30–31
study of genes for, 331–33
ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC) deficiency, 429–36
criticisms of approach to trials with, 433–34, 435–36, 465
death in trial of, 432–33, 434–35, 465
gene therapy for, 429–34
scientific lessons of trial with, 434–35
transmission of, 429
Orwell, George, 12, 131
Osler, William, 76
osteogenesis imperfecta, 261
Out of Africa theory, 336
Owen, Richard, 34, 40
oxygen
blood carrier for, 141, 170, 171
nitrogen transformed into, 140
Page, David, 361, 362
Paley, William, 29
pancreas, insulin in, 216, 239–40, 243n
pancreatic cancer, 405
pangenesis, 44, 57, 58, 71
pangenesis, Darwin’s theory of,
44, 46, 57, 71
pangenetics, de Vries’s theory of, 62, 71
Paracelsus, 25
Paradise Lost (Milton), 32
Pardee, Arthur, 175, 176n, 177
Park, Hetty, 270–71
Park, Laura, 270
parson-naturalists, 30–31
Partition of Bengal, 4–5, 493
Patent Act (US), 245
patent and patent applications, 14n
for Amgen’s isolation of erythropoietin, 308
for BRCA1 gene sequence, 439
for gene-fragment technology, 309
for Genentech’s insulin created in a test tube, 245
for genes, 308–09, 312
for recombinant DNA techniques, 237, 245, 308
Patrinos, Ari, 317–18
Patterson, Orlando, 348
Pauling, Linus, 164, 333n
DNA structure research of, 148, 152–53
hemoglobin variants and, 170
protein structure research of, 143, 148
pea plant-breeding experiments of Mendel, 48–52, 51n, 55
Pearson, Karl, 68–70, 73, 76, 116
PEG-ADA, 423, 427, 428
penicillin, 145, 229
People (magazine), 371
personality archetypes, 385
Perutz, Max, 131
Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, 260
phenotypes, 72
effects of variant genes on traits and, 104
environmental triggers affecting, 107
eugenics and manipulation of, 74
genes predictive of risk in, 447
genotypes as determinants of, 106–07
interactions between heredity, chance, environment, variation, and evolution in shaping, 107–08
natural selection of fittest, 108
random chance as factor in, 107
phiX virus, 294
physiology, 142
Plague, The (Camus), 479
plant-breeding experiments
Correns’s use of, 59–60
de Vries’s use of, 58–59, 60–61
Mendel’s use of, 46, 48–52, 51n, 54–55
Plato, 22, 23, 69, 74
Ploetz, Alfred, 76–77, 120–21, 129
pneumococcus, research for vaccine against, 112–14
Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP), 246
pneumonia, 2, 112, 113, 246, 289, 309, 422, 428
pneumococcal pneumonia, 112
Pollack, Robert, 209, 210
polycystic kidney disease (PKD), 270
polygenic syndromes, 295
classification of, 262
Down syndrome as, 262, 262n, 267, 455
inheritance of, 481–82
mathematical models for genes in, 302
multiple genes at multiple locations and, 262–63, 295
negative selection in, 276
schizophrenia as, 276, 300
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 302, 430, 439
polymorphisms, 280–81, 280n, 301, 303
Popular Science Monthly, 332
population growth, Malthus on, 37, 38, 39
positional cloning, 288–91
positive eugenics
gene therapy and rebirth of, 464
genotype selection in, 274
Muller’s interest in, 116
neo-eugenics and, 274
preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) and, 456
support for, 75, 274
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 459, 491, 497n
preformation, 25–26, 27
preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), 456–57, 464, 477, 490
Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy, A (Herschel), 29
prenatal tests, 491
amniocentesis and, 267, 268, 291
for cystic fibrosis, 291
feeblemindedness diagnosis for sterilization using, 79, 81–82
genetic. See genetic screening
lawsuits over medical advice received after, 270–71
neo-eugenics (newgenetics) and, 272–73
non-invasive (NIPT), 490n
parental right to choose not to have a child after, 271
right to be born and, 269, 270, 272
therapeutic abortion and, 267–68, 273
previvors
available information and choices made by, 453–54, 455, 457, 492
coining of phrase, 441
Priddy, Albert, 80–82, 83, 116, 120, 273
Principles of Geology (Lyell), 32
Proceedings of the Brno Science Society, 53
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 228
promoters, 307n
Prospects for Designed Genetic Change conference (1971), Chicago, 198
Protein + Cell (journal), 478
proteins
amino acids in structure of, 163
cell functions executed by, 163–64
flow of biological information with, 410
genes in configuration of molecules of, 163
X-ray diffraction of structure of, 143
protein receptors, and smell, 323
proteomes, 487n
protons, 140
pseudogenes, 324–25
psychotic fugues, 8, 298
Ptashne, Mark, 176n, 247, 403n
PTSD, 459, 491, 497n
Pythagoras
Aristotle’s criticism of, 23
Darwin’s use of homunculus concept from, 43
Galton’s borrowing from, 69
inheritance theory of, 21–22, 25, 27, 53, 356
Lamarck’s theory similar to ideas of, 42
preformation as restatement of theory of, 27
Pythagorean theorem, 22, 24
Quake, Stephen, 450, 452
Quayle, Dan, 371
Quetelet, Adolphe, 66, 103
race
Agassiz’s theory of multiple origins and, 331–32
eugenics and fear of degeneration of, 75
intelligence and, 14, 341, 343, 345, 346, 348
Racial Biology of Jews, The (Verschuer), 124
racial cleansing
Nazi approach to, 121–22, 124
Ploetz’s theory of, 76–77
racial hygiene, 76–77, 120–21, 129, 502
radiation
mutant rate changes in fruit flies from, 115–16, 131, 220
mutations induced by, after Hiroshima/Nagasaki bombings, 301
stem mutations from, 469–70
radium, Curie’s research on, 145
Randall, J. T., 143–44, 149
random chance. See chance
Rasputin, Grigory, 99
Rau, Mary, 123
Recent Out of Africa model (ROAM), 336
recessive traits, Mendel’s plant-breeding experiments, 51–52
recombinant DNA
Advisory Committee for experiments using, 425
“Berg letter” on benefits and hazards of, 228
Berg’s initial creation of, 206–08, 210–11, 212–13, 214, 291, 503
creation of, as beginning of a new era, 226, 291
first creation of, 291
“future’s future” discussion at Erice with students on, 225–26, 417–18, 437
implication of technology of, 206–07, 209, 210, 417
Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RAC), 425, 426, 430, 434
recombinant factor VIII therapy, 249
recombinant TPA, 251
recombination, 181–82, 184, 208, 227, 229, 231, 278, 360n
Reimer, David, 363–65, 366
Reimers, Niels, 237
replication
of DNA, 179–80, 180n, 182, 218, 288, 296
of genes, 184, 205, 224, 302
of plasmids, 209
Repository for Germinal Choice (genius bank), Escondido, California, 274, 276
Republic, The (Plato), 22, 23
resilience gene, in humans, 460
retroviruses, 223, 410, 423–24, 427
reverse transcriptase, 223, 248
; rhesus monkeys, ES cells derived from embryos of, 468
rhinoceros fossils, 32–33
ribonucleic acid. See RNA
ribose, in RNA, 135n
ribosomes, 337
identification of, 165–66
noncoding genes and, 314
protein synthesis by, 165, 314
Ridley, Matt, 330
Riefenstahl, Leni, 121
Riggs, Art, 241–42, 243
right to be born, 269, 270, 272
right to choose not to have a child, 271
Riordan, Jack, 289–90
risk
BRCA1 breast cancer gene and, 439–41, 446, 453
genetic diagnosis and, 438
interpretation of predictive aspects of, 447, 449, 455
mutations in schizophrenia and, 444, 446, 461
region of a gene tied to, 455n
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
chemical composition of, 135, 135n
flow of biological information with, 410
gene regulation influenced by, 410
information theory on formation of, 413
Miller’s “primordial soup” experiments to form, 411
noncoding genes and, 314
Szostak’s experiment using micelles to generate self-replicating forms of, 411–12
RNA splicing, 219
RNA Tie Club, 164, 165
Roberts, Richard, 219, 307, 318
Roblin, Richard, 230, 231
Rockefeller University, 133, 135, 400, 400n
Roe v. Wade, 268–69
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 232
Rubin, Gerry, 315, 316–17
Russian Revolution, 98, 99, 109
Rutherford, Ernest, 140, 221n
Sabin, Alfred, 282
Sabin, Jessie, 282
Sabin, Paul, 282
Sabin, Seymour, 282
San Francisco Chronicle, 236
Sanger, Frederick, 216–18, 222, 240, 241, 294, 302, 310, 315
Sarler, Carol, 371
Sayre, Wallace, 340
scale shifts, in science breakthroughs, 293, 294
Scarr, Sandra, 348
Scheller, Richard, 241n
schizophrenia, 73, 79, 441–50
bipolar disease and, 8, 442, 443, 444, 447
Bleuler’s early description of, 441–42
breast cancer compared with, 446
coining of word, 442
“crazy genius” portrayal of, 448
creativity in, 448–49, 453
criminal behavior linked to, 300–301
familial form of, 8, 442, 444–45, 446n, 461
family’s concern about inheriting, 7–8
genetic diagnosis of, 446–47, 449–50, 453, 455, 492
genetic diversity in, 298
genetic links in, 8, 129, 261, 262, 276, 298–300, 303, 442, 445n, 449, 453, 503
genetic maps and sequencing for, 97, 302, 443–44, 461
intergenerational histories of, 8
molecular receptor changes in, 388
mutations linked to, 299, 443–44, 445, 445n
Nazi programs for, 121
pattern of inheritance as clue to genetic influences in, 298–300