The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence

by Ray Kurzweil

  Qu-bit A “quantum bit,” used in quantum computing, that is both zero and one at the same time, until quantum decoherence (direct or indirect observation by a conscious observer) causes each quantum bit to disambiguate into a state of zero or one. One qu-bit stores two possible numbers (zero and one) at the same time. N qu-bits stores 2N possible numbers at the same time. Thus an N qu-bit quantum computer would try 2N possible solutions to a problem simultaneously, which gives the quantum computer its enormous potential power.

  RAM See Random Access Memory.

  Random Access Memory (RAM) Memory that can be both read and written with random access of memory locations. Random access means that locations can be accessed in any order and do not need to be accessed sequentially. RAM can be used as the working memory of a computer into which applications and programs can be loaded and run.

  Ray Kurzweil’s Cybernetic Poet A computer program designed by Ray Kurzweil that uses a recursive approach to create poetry. The Cybernetic Poet analyzes word sequence patterns of poems it has “read” using markov models (a mathematical cousin of neural nets) and creates new poetry based on these patterns.

  Read-Only Memory (ROM) A form of computer storage that can be read from but not written to or deleted (e.g., CD-ROM).

  Reading machine A machine that scans text and reads it aloud. Initially developed for those who are visually impaired, reading machines are currently used by anyone who cannot read at their intellectual level, including reading disabled (e.g., dyslexic) persons and children first learning to read.

  Recursion The process of defining or expressing a function or procedure in terms of itself. Typically, each iteration of a recursive-solution procedure produces a simpler (or possibly smaller) version of the problem than the previous iteration. This process continues until a subproblem whose answer is already known (or that can be readily computed without recursion) is obtained. A surprisingly large number of symbolic and numerical problems lend themselves to recursive formulations. Recursion is typically used by game-playing programs, such as the chess-playing program Deep Blue. Recursive formula A computer-programming paradigm that uses recursive search to find a solution to a problem. The recursive search is based on a precise definition of the problem (e.g., the rules of a game such as chess).

  Relativity A theory based on two postulates: (1) that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant and independent of the source or the observer, and (2) that the mathematical forms of the laws of physics are invariant in all inertial systems. Implications of the theory of relativity include the equivalence of mass and energy and of change in mass, dimension, and time with increased velocity. See also Einstein’s theory of relativity.

  Relaxation Response A neurological mechanism discovered by Dr. Herbert Benson and other researchers at the Harvard Medical School and Boston’s Beth Israel Hospital. The opposite of the “fight or flight” or stress response, the Relaxation Response is associated with reduced levels of epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), blood pressure, blood sugar, breathing, and heart rates.

  Remember York movement In the second decade of the twenty-first century, a neo-Luddite web discussion group. The group is named to commemorate the 1813 trial in York, England, during which a number of the Luddites who destroyed industrial machinery were hanged, jailed, or exiled.

  Reverse engineering Examining a product, program, or process to understand it and to determine its methods and algorithms. Scanning and copying a human brains salient computational methods into a neural computer of sufficient capacity is a future example of reverse engineering.

  RKCP See Ray Kurzweil’s Cybernetic Poet.

  Robinson The world’s first operational computer, constructed from telephone relays and named after a popular cartoonist who drew “Rube Goldberg” machines (very ornate machinery with many interacting mechanisms). During World War II, Robinson provided the British with a transcription of nearly all significant Nazi coded messages, until it was replaced by Colossus. See Colossus.

  Robot A programmable device, linked to a computer, consisting of mechanical manipulators and sensors. A robot may perform a physical task normally done by human beings, possibly with greater speed, strength, and/or precision.

  Robotics The science and technology of designing and manufacturing robots. Robotics combines artificial intelligence and mechanical engineering.

  ROM See Read-Only Memory.

  Russell’s Paradox The ambiguity created by the following question: Does a set that is defined as “all sets that do not include themselves” include itself as a member? Russell’s paradox motivated Bertrand Russell to create a new theory of sets.

  Search A recursive procedure in which an automatic problem solver seeks a solution by iteratively exploring sequences of possible alternatives.

  Second Industrial Revolution The automation of mental rather than physical tasks.

  Second law of thermodynamics Also known as the Law of Increasing Entropy, this law states that the disorder (amount of random movement) of particles in the Universe may increase but never decreases. As the disorder in the Universe increases, the energy is transformed into less usable forms. Thus, the efficiency of any process will always be less than 100 percent (hence the impossibility of perpetual motion machines).

  Self-replication A process or device that is capable of creating an additional copy of itself. Nanobots are self-replicating if they can create copies of themselves. Self-replication is regarded as a necessary means of manufacturing nanobots due to the very large number (i.e., trillions) of such devices needed to perform useful functions.

  Semiconductor A material commonly based on silicon or germanium with a conductivity midway between that of a good conductor and an insulator. Semiconductors are used to manufacture transistors. Semiconductors rely on the phenomenon of tunneling. See Tunneling.

  Sensorium In 2019, the product name for a total touch virtual reality environment, which provides an all-encompassing tactile environment.

  Serial computer A computer that performs a single computation at a time. Thus two or more computations are performed one after the other, not simultaneously (even if the computations are independent). The opposite of a parallel processing computer.

  Silicon Valley The area in California, south of San Francisco, that is a key center of high-technology innovation, including the development of software, communication, integrated circuits and related technologies.

  Simple-minded school The use of simple procedures to evaluate the terminal leaves in a recursive algorithm. For example, in the context of a chess program, adding up piece values.

  Simulated person A realistic, animated personality incorporating a convincing visual appearance and capable of communicating using natural language. By 2019, a simulated person can interact with real persons using visual, auditory, and tactile means in a virtual reality environment.

  Simulator A program that models and represents an activity or environment on a computer system. Examples include the simulation of chemical interaction and fluid flow. Other examples include a flight simulator used to train pilots and a simulated patient to train physicians. Simulators are also often used for entertainment.

  Society of mind A theory of the mind proposed by Marvin Minsky in which intelligence is seen to be the result of proper organization of a large number (a society) of other minds, which are in turn comprised of yet simpler minds. At the bottom of this hierarchy are simple mechanisms, each of which is by itself unintelligent.

  Software Information and knowledge used to perform useful functions by computers and computerized devices. Includes computer programs and their data, but more generally also includes such knowledge products as books, music, pictures, movies, and videos.

  Software-based evolution Software simulation of the evolutionary process. One example of software-based evolution is Network Tierra, designed by Thomas Ray. Ray’s “creatures” are software simulations of organisms in which each “cell” has its own DNA-like geneti
c code. The organisms compete with one another for the limited simulated space and energy resources of their simulated environment.

  Speaker independence Refers to the ability of a speech-recognition system to understand any speaker, regardless of whether or not the system has previously sampled that speaker’s speech.

  Stored-program computer A computer in which the program is stored in memory along with the data to be operated on. A stored-program capacity is an important capability for systems of artificial intelligence in that recursion and self-modifying code are not possible without it.

  Subjective experience The experience of an entity as experienced by the entity, as opposed to observations of that entity (including its internal processes) by another entity, or by a measurement apparatus.

  Substrate Computing medium or circuitry. See Computing medium.

  Supercomputer The fastest and most powerful computer available at any given time. Supercomputers are used for computations demanding high speed and storage (e.g., analyzing weather data).

  Superconductivity The physical phenomenon whereby some materials exhibit zero electrical resistance at low temperatures. Superconductivity points to the possibility of great computational power with little or no heat dissipation (a limiting factor today). Heat dissipation is a major reason that three-dimensional circuits are difficult to create.

  Synthesizer A device that computes signals in real time. In the context of music, a (usually computer based) device that creates and generates sounds and music electronically.

  Tactile virtualism By 2029, a technology that allows one to use a virtual body to enjoy virtual reality experiences without virtual reality equipment other than the use of neural implants (which include high-bandwidth wireless communication). The neural implants create the pattern of nerve signals that corresponds to a comparable “real” experience.

  Technology An evolving process of tool creation to shape and control the environment. Technology goes beyond the mere fashioning and use of tools. It involves a record of tool making and a progression in the sophistication of tools. It requires invention and is itself a continuation of evolution by other means. The “genetic code” of the evolutionary process of technology is the knowledge base maintained by the tool-making species.

  Three-dimensional chip A chip that is constructed in three dimensions, thus allowing for hundreds or thousands of layers of circuitry. Three-dimensional chips are currently being researched and engineered by a variety of companies.

  Total touch environment In 2019, a virtual-reality environment that provides an all-encompassing tactile environment.

  Transistor A switching and/or amplifying device using semiconductors, first created in 1948 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley of Bell Labs.

  Translating telephone A telephone that provides real-time speech translation from one human language to another.

  Tunneling In quantum mechanics, the ability of electrons (negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus of an atom) to exist in two places at once, in particular on both sides of a barrier. Tunneling allows some of the electrons to effectively move through the barrier and accounts for the “semi” conductor properties of a transistor.

  Turing machine A simple abstract model of a computing machine, designed by Alan Turing in his 1936 paper “On Computable Numbers.” The Turing machine is a fundamental concept in the theory of computation.

  Turing Test A procedure proposed by Alan Turing in 1950 for determining whether or not a system (generally a computer) has achieved human-level intelligence, based on whether it can deceive a human interrogator into believing that it is human. A human “judge” interviews the (computer) system, and one or more human “foils” over terminal lines (by typing messages). Both the computer and the human foil(s) try to convince the human judge of their humanness. If the human judge is unable to distinguish the computer from the human foil(s), then the computer is considered to have demonstrated human-level intelligence. Turing did not specify many key details, such as the duration of the interrogation and the sophistication of the human judge and foils. By 2029, computers are passing the test, although the validity of the test remains a point of controversy and philosophical debate.

  Utility fog A space filled with Foglets. At the end of the twenty-first century, utility fog can be used to simulate any environment, essentially providing “real” reality with the environment-transforming capabilities of virtual reality. See Fog swarm projection; Foglet.

  Vacuum tube The earliest form of an electronic switch (or amplifier) based on vacuum-filled glass containers. Used in radios and other communication equipment and early computers; replaced by the transistor.

  Venture Capital Refers to funds available for investment by organizations that have raised pools of capital specifically to invest in companies, primarily new ventures.

  Virtual body In virtual reality, one’s own body potentially transformed to appear (and ultimately to feel) different than it does in “real” reality

  Virtual reality A simulated environment in which you can immerse yourself. A virtual reality environment provides a convincing replacement for the visual and auditory senses, and (by 2019) the tactile sense. In later decades, the olfactory sense will be included as well. The key to a realistic visual experience in virtual reality is that when you move your head, the scene instantly repositions itself so that you are now looking at a different region of a three-dimensional scene. The intention is to simulate what happens when you turn your real head in the real world: The images captured by your retinas rapidly change. Your brain nonetheless understands that the world has remained stationary and that the image is sliding across your retinas only because your head is rotating. Initially, virtual reality (including crude contemporary systems) requires the use of special helmets to provide the visual and auditory environments. By 2019, virtual reality will be provided by ubiquitous contact-lens-based systems and implanted retinal-imaging devices (as well as comparable devices for auditory “imaging”). Later in the twenty-first century, virtual reality (which will include all the senses) will be provided by direct stimulation of nerve pathways using neural implants.

  Virtual reality auditory lenses In 2019, sonic devices that project high-resolution sounds precisely placed in the three-dimensional virtual environment. These can be built into eyeglasses, worn as body jewelry, or implanted.

  Virtual reality blocking display In 2019, a display technology using virtual reality optical lenses (see below) and virtual reality auditory lenses (see above) that creates highly realistic virtual visual environments. The display blocks out the real environment, so you see and hear only the projected virtual environment.

  Virtual reality head-directed display In 2019, a display technology using virtual reality optical lenses (see below) and virtual reality auditory lenses (see above) that projects a virtual environment stationary with respect to the position and orientation of your head. When you move your head, the display moves relative to the real environment. This mode is often used to interact with virtual documents.

  Virtual reality optical lenses In 2009, three-dimensional displays built into glasses or contact lenses. These “direct eye” displays create highly realistic virtual visual environments overlaying the “real” environment. This display technology projects images directly onto the human retina, exceeds the resolution of human vision, and is widely used regardless of visual impairment. In 1998, the Microvision Virtual Retina Display provides a similar capability for military pilots, with consumer versions anticipated.

  Virtual reality overlay display In 2019, a display technology using virtual reality optical lenses (see above) and virtual reality auditory lenses (see above) that integrates real and virtual environments. The displayed images slide when you move or turn your head so that the virtual people, objects, and environment appear to remain stationary in relation to the real environment (which you can still see). Thus if the direct eye display is displaying the image of a person (who coul
d be a geographically remote real person engaging in a three-dimensional visual phone call with you, or a computer-generated simulated person), that projected person will appear to be in a particular place relative to the real environment that you also see. When you move your head, that projected person will appear to remain in the same place relative to the real environment.

  Virtual sex Sex in virtual reality incorporating a visual, auditory, and tactile environment. The sex partner can be a real or simulated person.

  Virtual tactile environment A virtual reality system that allows the user to experience a realistic and all-encompassing tactile environment.

  Vision chip A silicon emulation of the human retina that captures the algorithm of early mammalian visual processing, an algorithm called center surround filtering.

  World Wide Web (WWW) A highly distributed (not centralized) communications network allowing individuals and organizations around the world to communicate with one another. Communication includes the sharing of text, images, sounds, video, software, and other forms of information. The primary user interface paradigm of the “web” is based on hypertext, which consists of documents (which can contain any type of data) connected by “links,” which the user selects by a pointing device such as a mouse. The Web is a system of data-and-message servers linked by high-capacity communication links that can be accessed by any computer user with a “web browser” and Internet access. With the introduction of Windows98, access to the Web is built into the operating system. By the late twenty-first century, the Web will provide the distributed computing medium for software-based humans.

  Y2K (year 2000 problem) Refers to anticipated difficulties caused by software (usually developed several decades prior to the year 2000) in which date fields used only two digits. Unless the software is adjusted, this will cause computer programs to behave erratically when the year becomes “00.” These programs will mistake the year 2000 for 1900.