and, by extension, political life.
Sixth, another political value arises – the Qur’anic concept of social identity
or ‘Ummah’. Looking closely, the term is listed in Lisan al-Arab, the thirteenth-
century Arabic dictionary, under the root ‘amma’ or ‘amama’, which means ‘to
seek’, ‘to go intentionally forward’ or ‘to seek the right path’. From the same
root comes the word ‘umm’ or mother, which may, also, refer to the flag an army
follows, the leader of a people, or meanings including a ‘point of reference’,
‘way’, ‘path’, ‘source’ or ‘identity’.33 In the Qur’an, the term ‘Ummah’ occurs 60 times, which, even while taking a variety of shades of meaning, revolve around
the singular identification of being a ‘faith-centric community’.34 Al-Faruqi concludes that ‘Ummah’ is ‘the defining tradition that a group takes as its goal
and therefore as a source of identification. Hence, the word “mother”, the pro-
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vider of one’s identity’. 35 Rahman adds that this unique value may be associated with its modern variant, national citizenship; it furthers the principle of
equality and justifies universal political suffrage. 36 However, what sets it apart is the multiple layers of community to which the term implies.
Interestingly, the term ‘ummah’ may be used to describe all of humanity or
may mean a single individual who acts in accord with certain beliefs. 37
Moreover, any created being or group of human beings who behave and act
according to certain values may be considered a part of an ‘ummah’ which
lays claim to those principles. In the Qur’an, it states: ‘This community of
yours is one single “Ummah” and I am your Lord; therefore, worship Me
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alone. But humans have torn their unity wide asunder (forgetting that) unto Us
all are bound to return. And yet, whoever does the good deed and is a believer,
his endeavour shall not be disowned’.38 Here, emphasis on all of humanity representing a common ‘Ummah’ is explained. Yet, in other passages, the
Qur’an uses it to describe the aggregates of animals and birds who are constantly
singing the praises of God. 39 Clearly, the term ‘Ummah’ derives its meaning from the purpose of the entity and how they manifest that purpose in life by
commitment to certain values. To put this together, ‘Ummah’ may refer to ‘a
faith-centric community of Muslims’ and, also, to the entirety of the human
race as a larger, all-embracing collectivity. In other words, the larger Ummah
consists of smaller groupings of individual ‘ummam’ – the plural of Ummah,
including the Muslim, Christian, and Jewish ‘faith-centric communities’. 40
The idea arising here is that there is an all-inclusive, primordial single
Ummah and, while fractures in that unity gave rise to differentiating creeds,
this doesn’t negate the togetherness of humanity.
Attesting to that, the Qur’an states that all religious traditions emanate
from a singular source and may be understood as variants of the original
message: ‘All mankind were one single community; then they began to differ,
whereupon God raised up the Prophets as messengers of glad tidings and as
warners, and through them bestowed revelation from on high, setting forth
the truth, so that it might decide between people with regard to all on which
they had come to hold divergent views’. 41 Thus ‘globalization’ is the actualization of Islam – at least in regards to the concept of identity. In this belief,
Al-Faruqi elaborates: ‘humankind was created for a single purpose, and they
are a single “ummah”. How they act will determine the actual ummah in
space-time’. 42
Amongst the larger Ummah, and smaller groupings within it, the leading
Ummah is a meta-community constantly in the making. It is, though, clearly
defined – ‘you would be the best “ummah” ever evolved for mankind,
enjoining the good and prohibiting evil and believing in God’ to whom, as the
verse continues, most of the followers of earlier revelations would have belonged
‘had they believed and indeed some do believe and that would have been for
their own good’.43 Al-Faruqi, then, clarifies that this ‘ideal “ummah” exists then through and in every righteous individual. It is made in the flesh and
blood of all those who submit to the divine law’.44 In as much as it includes Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 18:26 09 January 2017
past, present and future members embodying the law, it is the meta-historical
ideal community closest to the path prescribed by God, an ideal community
always to be realized, in which every individual equally applies the divine law
fully and with full consent of his or her own will.
Seventh, the next political value extracted from the Qur’an is that ‘all
human beings fall under God’s Divine Command which is conveyed to them
through a series of Prophets or Messengers’.45 The political implication here is of continuity of a singular truth that was imparted to humankind by Prophets or
Messengers, in order that they remind humanity of their ultimate purpose,
organize their identity, and bring law and moral codes of conduct. Hamid
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61
concurs, suggesting that the succession of Prophets and Messengers is intended
to reinvigorate the inherent capacity of human beings to recognize God’s
Supremacy.46 Therefore, Prophets were sent to remind, as the Qur’an refers to itself as the ‘Reminder’. 47 The value, here, is to renew people’s inclination toward God by establishing a political order based on the ethics that the
Qur’an espouses. Following the culmination of prophecy and revelation with
the Prophet Muhammad comes the requisite need for human beings to step
forward and implement these principles by establishing a political order
manifesting those aforementioned ideals.
Eighth, humans, as ‘Khilafah’, or as successors to the Prophets, must lead
and establish a system of governance that elevates certain values and upholds
the Law. Human beings are God’s ‘Khilafah’ or leadership representatives on
earth and must now ‘take the mantle forward and establish a state based on
political monotheism in which the principles articulated in the Qur’an would
be able to be implemented’.48 As it is stated in the Qur’an: ‘Behold, thy Lord said to the angels: “I will create a vicegerent on earth.” They said: “Wilt
Thou place therein one who will make mischief therein and shed blood? –
whilst we do celebrate Thy praises and glorify Thy holy (name)?” He said:
“I know what ye know not.”’49 This dialogue between the angels and God involves the former questioning the wisdom in choosing human beings as His
vicegerents. In response, God informs the angels that He has knowledge
beyond what they have – which, incidentally, is an obvious endorsement of
human agency and potential. Nonetheless, once it is recognized that human
beings have this special leadership, responsibility and position, the following
crucial questions arise: What are those specific leadership qualities? How
should they establish a system of governance that would represent Qur’anic
values?
The term ‘Khilafah�
�� is heavy and, to describe it, the Qur’an clearly associ-
ates it with leadership, and, more specifically, a ‘believing Muslim’. However,
the exact qualities of that individual are scattered by references throughout
the text. For instance, the Qur’an states that ‘For Muslim men and women,
for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and
women, for men and women who are patient and constant, for men and
women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in Charity, for
men and women who fast (and deny themselves), for men and women who
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guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in Allah’s
praise – for them has Allah prepared forgiveness and great reward’.50 Moreover, a Prophetic saying further cements the responsibilities of leadership:
‘Whoso from you is appointed by the people to a position of authority and he
conceals from the people a needle or something smaller than that, it would be
misappropriation of public funds and he would have to produce it on the Day
of Judgment’.51 The aforementioned qualities are indicative of the necessary personal attributes of a leader, but still much more needs to be elaborated in
regard to leadership from an Islamic perspective since this is crucial in the
political realm.
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The ‘Khilafah’ should deal justly and fairly with people regardless of their
race, colour, national origin, or religion. 52 The Qur’an commands Muslims to be fair even when dealing with those opposed to them: ‘Allah does command you to
render back your trusts to those to whom they are due, and when you judge
between peoples that you judge with justice … ’53 Elsewhere, the Qur’an states: ‘And let not the hatred of others to you make you swerve to wrong and
depart from justice. Be just, that is next to piety … ’54 The Qur’an commands the leader to do his duty for Allah and to show kindness to those under their
authority. Clearly, this supports the notion that the greatest test of character
is how those with power treat those without. As it suggests in the Qur’an:
‘Those, who, if we give them power in the land, establish worship and pay
zakah (the charitable poor-due) and enjoin kindness and forbid inequity’. 55
Here, kindness is equated with genuine leadership and is predicated on
loyalty, first and foremost, to God and then to the people. Also, the Qur’an
states: ‘O you who believe! Stand out firmly for justice, as witnesses to Allah,
even as against yourselves, or your parents, or your kin, and whether it be
against rich or poor, for Allah can protect both … ’56 Collectively, these verses clarify the qualities necessary for ‘Khilafah’ leadership in Islam –
namely, fairness, justice, transparency and honesty. The Hadeeth literature
further attest to the importance of these values when it is mentioned that ‘any
individual whom Allah has given authority of ruling some people and he does
not look after them in an honest manner, will never have even the smell of
paradise’.57 Moreover, it is further stated that ‘if any ruler has authority to rule Muslim subjects and dies while he is deceiving them, Allah will forbid
paradise for him’. 58
Eighth, the Prophetic sayings clarify that the ‘Khilafah’ or leader of the
Muslim community must be ‘chosen by the people’.59 Of course, what this implies and how it is ascertained remains a matter of contention; nevertheless,
it is undeniable that leadership and people are enmeshed in a reciprocal
relationship. Second, ‘the majority of the believers cannot collectively err’. 60
These Prophetic sayings clearly establish that people matter. These Pro-
phetic sayings presuppose that the wishes, aspirations and preferences of the
people are of primary importance and that there exists a deep insight in
the collective wisdom of the masses. Equality is inferred and people in
their collective wisdom should decide on who should lead them. While the
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principle stands that people should choose their leaders and that they
cannot collectively err, there is, however, no clarification on how a society
should proceed to ascertain the aspirations of the people. This has been left
for each society to comprehend for itself according to its context. A broad
parameter is established based on a value that empowers people in the
political process and encourages them to establish those principles in their
societal contexts.
Ninth, the Qur’an and Prophetic sayings elucidate that one ought ‘not to
seek leadership or authority, but to graciously accept it if offered ’. This is clear from numerous Prophetic sayings that assert that those who want leadership
Political values
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should not have it.61 The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said: ‘Do not seek to be a ruler, for if you are given authority on your demand, you will be held
responsible for it, but if you are given it without asking for it, then you will be
helped, by Allah, in it’.62 Moreover, it is also mentioned that those who wish to seek power and leadership will regret it on the Day of Resurrection: ‘You
people will be keen to have the authority of ruling which will be a thing of
regret for you on the Day of Resurrection’.63 The foregoing suggests that those who actively seek out leadership are unworthy of the responsibility. This
seems to caution against the idea of egocentric political advocacy. Granted,
while no clear directive is given, the whole concept of political parties, as it exists in the modern democratic structure, is competitive and, often, antagonistic,
which is in conflict with the principle of displaying magnanimity towards
political aspirants. In this regard, many Muslim polities have criticised
political parties outright, including Egypt, Pakistan and Morocco, and have
been advocating banning them.64 Still, that would not resolve the matter of reconciling divergent voices in a society.
Tenth, and one of the most important political values from the Qur’an, is
the concept of ‘shura’ or consultation. This value is of such importance that
not only is it stated numerous times in the Qur’an, but also an entire chapter
is entitled after it. Unequivocally, the Qur’an states, ‘And those who answer
the call of their Lord and establish prayer, and who conduct their affairs by
consultation and spend out of what We bestow on them for sustenance’. 65
Even the Prophet Muhammad was directed by God to take decisions with
mutual consultation:
It is part of the Mercy of Allah that you do deal gently with them. Were
you severe or harsh-hearted, they would have broken away from about
you: So pass over their faults, and ask for Allah’s forgiveness for them
and consult them in affairs of the moment. Then, when you have taken a
decision, put your trust in Allah. For Allah loves those who put their
trust in Him. 66
Thus, the practice of ‘shura’ enables people to participate in the decision-
making process and provides legitimacy to the leaders for the authority they
exercise. Hamid adds that the people, or Ummah, and the Qur’an reinforce each
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y 2017
other in the process of guidance, and the state, or system of governance,
becomes a limited institution.67 It is limited on one side by the Book and the other side by the people. As such, the Islamic state has to apply the self-evident
Qur’anic principles verbatim and refer the nonspecific ones to the people, to
clarify their ambiguity and reach a consensual decision thereon. Therefore,
consultation is a necessary measure for ascertaining the truth and protecting
both the leadership and the people from error. Moreover, the majority opinion
of the people cannot be bypassed or superseded by the opinion of a single
person, including that of the leader, since the leader is also bound by the
truth, which has gained the consensus of the people.68
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The Prophetic sayings, similarly, substantiate this style of consultative
decision-making and support the principle of accountability:
I am only a human being [Prophet Muhammad – pbuh], and you people
come to me with your cases; and it may be that one of you can present
his case eloquently in a more convincing way than the other, and I give
my verdict according to what I hear. So, if I judge by error and give the
right of a brother to his other brother then [the latter] should not take it,
for I am giving him only a piece of fire.69
Here it is clear that the Prophet Muhammad establishes that his decision allows
room for consultative decision-making and encourages honesty within litigants.
Admittedly, the exact form of mutual consultation has not been described,
although the principle of engaging the citizenry and consulting people has
been established both by the Qur’an and the Prophet Muhammad. This is
crucial since it indicates a relationship between those who govern and those
who are governed.
Eleventh, there are two other important deductions that are drawn from
authorizing consultation – namely, consensus and accountability. To explain,
let us describe ‘shura’ as an act of consultation, whereas ‘ijma’ involves the
consensual decision taken by the majority following the consultation process.
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