Islam and Pakistan’s Political Culture

by Farhan Mujahid Chak

  and, by extension, political life.

  Sixth, another political value arises – the Qur’anic concept of social identity

  or ‘Ummah’. Looking closely, the term is listed in Lisan al-Arab, the thirteenth-

  century Arabic dictionary, under the root ‘amma’ or ‘amama’, which means ‘to

  seek’, ‘to go intentionally forward’ or ‘to seek the right path’. From the same

  root comes the word ‘umm’ or mother, which may, also, refer to the flag an army

  follows, the leader of a people, or meanings including a ‘point of reference’,

  ‘way’, ‘path’, ‘source’ or ‘identity’.33 In the Qur’an, the term ‘Ummah’ occurs 60 times, which, even while taking a variety of shades of meaning, revolve around

  the singular identification of being a ‘faith-centric community’.34 Al-Faruqi concludes that ‘Ummah’ is ‘the defining tradition that a group takes as its goal

  and therefore as a source of identification. Hence, the word “mother”, the pro-

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  vider of one’s identity’. 35 Rahman adds that this unique value may be associated with its modern variant, national citizenship; it furthers the principle of

  equality and justifies universal political suffrage. 36 However, what sets it apart is the multiple layers of community to which the term implies.

  Interestingly, the term ‘ummah’ may be used to describe all of humanity or

  may mean a single individual who acts in accord with certain beliefs. 37

  Moreover, any created being or group of human beings who behave and act

  according to certain values may be considered a part of an ‘ummah’ which

  lays claim to those principles. In the Qur’an, it states: ‘This community of

  yours is one single “Ummah” and I am your Lord; therefore, worship Me

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  alone. But humans have torn their unity wide asunder (forgetting that) unto Us

  all are bound to return. And yet, whoever does the good deed and is a believer,

  his endeavour shall not be disowned’.38 Here, emphasis on all of humanity representing a common ‘Ummah’ is explained. Yet, in other passages, the

  Qur’an uses it to describe the aggregates of animals and birds who are constantly

  singing the praises of God. 39 Clearly, the term ‘Ummah’ derives its meaning from the purpose of the entity and how they manifest that purpose in life by

  commitment to certain values. To put this together, ‘Ummah’ may refer to ‘a

  faith-centric community of Muslims’ and, also, to the entirety of the human

  race as a larger, all-embracing collectivity. In other words, the larger Ummah

  consists of smaller groupings of individual ‘ummam’ – the plural of Ummah,

  including the Muslim, Christian, and Jewish ‘faith-centric communities’. 40

  The idea arising here is that there is an all-inclusive, primordial single

  Ummah and, while fractures in that unity gave rise to differentiating creeds,

  this doesn’t negate the togetherness of humanity.

  Attesting to that, the Qur’an states that all religious traditions emanate

  from a singular source and may be understood as variants of the original

  message: ‘All mankind were one single community; then they began to differ,

  whereupon God raised up the Prophets as messengers of glad tidings and as

  warners, and through them bestowed revelation from on high, setting forth

  the truth, so that it might decide between people with regard to all on which

  they had come to hold divergent views’. 41 Thus ‘globalization’ is the actualization of Islam – at least in regards to the concept of identity. In this belief,

  Al-Faruqi elaborates: ‘humankind was created for a single purpose, and they

  are a single “ummah”. How they act will determine the actual ummah in

  space-time’. 42

  Amongst the larger Ummah, and smaller groupings within it, the leading

  Ummah is a meta-community constantly in the making. It is, though, clearly

  defined – ‘you would be the best “ummah” ever evolved for mankind,

  enjoining the good and prohibiting evil and believing in God’ to whom, as the

  verse continues, most of the followers of earlier revelations would have belonged

  ‘had they believed and indeed some do believe and that would have been for

  their own good’.43 Al-Faruqi, then, clarifies that this ‘ideal “ummah” exists then through and in every righteous individual. It is made in the flesh and

  blood of all those who submit to the divine law’.44 In as much as it includes Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 18:26 09 January 2017

  past, present and future members embodying the law, it is the meta-historical

  ideal community closest to the path prescribed by God, an ideal community

  always to be realized, in which every individual equally applies the divine law

  fully and with full consent of his or her own will.

  Seventh, the next political value extracted from the Qur’an is that ‘all

  human beings fall under God’s Divine Command which is conveyed to them

  through a series of Prophets or Messengers’.45 The political implication here is of continuity of a singular truth that was imparted to humankind by Prophets or

  Messengers, in order that they remind humanity of their ultimate purpose,

  organize their identity, and bring law and moral codes of conduct. Hamid

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  concurs, suggesting that the succession of Prophets and Messengers is intended

  to reinvigorate the inherent capacity of human beings to recognize God’s

  Supremacy.46 Therefore, Prophets were sent to remind, as the Qur’an refers to itself as the ‘Reminder’. 47 The value, here, is to renew people’s inclination toward God by establishing a political order based on the ethics that the

  Qur’an espouses. Following the culmination of prophecy and revelation with

  the Prophet Muhammad comes the requisite need for human beings to step

  forward and implement these principles by establishing a political order

  manifesting those aforementioned ideals.

  Eighth, humans, as ‘Khilafah’, or as successors to the Prophets, must lead

  and establish a system of governance that elevates certain values and upholds

  the Law. Human beings are God’s ‘Khilafah’ or leadership representatives on

  earth and must now ‘take the mantle forward and establish a state based on

  political monotheism in which the principles articulated in the Qur’an would

  be able to be implemented’.48 As it is stated in the Qur’an: ‘Behold, thy Lord said to the angels: “I will create a vicegerent on earth.” They said: “Wilt

  Thou place therein one who will make mischief therein and shed blood? –

  whilst we do celebrate Thy praises and glorify Thy holy (name)?” He said:

  “I know what ye know not.”’49 This dialogue between the angels and God involves the former questioning the wisdom in choosing human beings as His

  vicegerents. In response, God informs the angels that He has knowledge

  beyond what they have – which, incidentally, is an obvious endorsement of

  human agency and potential. Nonetheless, once it is recognized that human

  beings have this special leadership, responsibility and position, the following

  crucial questions arise: What are those specific leadership qualities? How

  should they establish a system of governance that would represent Qur’anic

  values?

  The term ‘Khilafah�
�� is heavy and, to describe it, the Qur’an clearly associ-

  ates it with leadership, and, more specifically, a ‘believing Muslim’. However,

  the exact qualities of that individual are scattered by references throughout

  the text. For instance, the Qur’an states that ‘For Muslim men and women,

  for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and

  women, for men and women who are patient and constant, for men and

  women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in Charity, for

  men and women who fast (and deny themselves), for men and women who

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  guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in Allah’s

  praise – for them has Allah prepared forgiveness and great reward’.50 Moreover, a Prophetic saying further cements the responsibilities of leadership:

  ‘Whoso from you is appointed by the people to a position of authority and he

  conceals from the people a needle or something smaller than that, it would be

  misappropriation of public funds and he would have to produce it on the Day

  of Judgment’.51 The aforementioned qualities are indicative of the necessary personal attributes of a leader, but still much more needs to be elaborated in

  regard to leadership from an Islamic perspective since this is crucial in the

  political realm.

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  The ‘Khilafah’ should deal justly and fairly with people regardless of their

  race, colour, national origin, or religion. 52 The Qur’an commands Muslims to be fair even when dealing with those opposed to them: ‘Allah does command you to

  render back your trusts to those to whom they are due, and when you judge

  between peoples that you judge with justice … ’53 Elsewhere, the Qur’an states: ‘And let not the hatred of others to you make you swerve to wrong and

  depart from justice. Be just, that is next to piety … ’54 The Qur’an commands the leader to do his duty for Allah and to show kindness to those under their

  authority. Clearly, this supports the notion that the greatest test of character

  is how those with power treat those without. As it suggests in the Qur’an:

  ‘Those, who, if we give them power in the land, establish worship and pay

  zakah (the charitable poor-due) and enjoin kindness and forbid inequity’. 55

  Here, kindness is equated with genuine leadership and is predicated on

  loyalty, first and foremost, to God and then to the people. Also, the Qur’an

  states: ‘O you who believe! Stand out firmly for justice, as witnesses to Allah,

  even as against yourselves, or your parents, or your kin, and whether it be

  against rich or poor, for Allah can protect both … ’56 Collectively, these verses clarify the qualities necessary for ‘Khilafah’ leadership in Islam –

  namely, fairness, justice, transparency and honesty. The Hadeeth literature

  further attest to the importance of these values when it is mentioned that ‘any

  individual whom Allah has given authority of ruling some people and he does

  not look after them in an honest manner, will never have even the smell of

  paradise’.57 Moreover, it is further stated that ‘if any ruler has authority to rule Muslim subjects and dies while he is deceiving them, Allah will forbid

  paradise for him’. 58

  Eighth, the Prophetic sayings clarify that the ‘Khilafah’ or leader of the

  Muslim community must be ‘chosen by the people’.59 Of course, what this implies and how it is ascertained remains a matter of contention; nevertheless,

  it is undeniable that leadership and people are enmeshed in a reciprocal

  relationship. Second, ‘the majority of the believers cannot collectively err’. 60

  These Prophetic sayings clearly establish that people matter. These Pro-

  phetic sayings presuppose that the wishes, aspirations and preferences of the

  people are of primary importance and that there exists a deep insight in

  the collective wisdom of the masses. Equality is inferred and people in

  their collective wisdom should decide on who should lead them. While the

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  principle stands that people should choose their leaders and that they

  cannot collectively err, there is, however, no clarification on how a society

  should proceed to ascertain the aspirations of the people. This has been left

  for each society to comprehend for itself according to its context. A broad

  parameter is established based on a value that empowers people in the

  political process and encourages them to establish those principles in their

  societal contexts.

  Ninth, the Qur’an and Prophetic sayings elucidate that one ought ‘not to

  seek leadership or authority, but to graciously accept it if offered ’. This is clear from numerous Prophetic sayings that assert that those who want leadership

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  should not have it.61 The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said: ‘Do not seek to be a ruler, for if you are given authority on your demand, you will be held

  responsible for it, but if you are given it without asking for it, then you will be

  helped, by Allah, in it’.62 Moreover, it is also mentioned that those who wish to seek power and leadership will regret it on the Day of Resurrection: ‘You

  people will be keen to have the authority of ruling which will be a thing of

  regret for you on the Day of Resurrection’.63 The foregoing suggests that those who actively seek out leadership are unworthy of the responsibility. This

  seems to caution against the idea of egocentric political advocacy. Granted,

  while no clear directive is given, the whole concept of political parties, as it exists in the modern democratic structure, is competitive and, often, antagonistic,

  which is in conflict with the principle of displaying magnanimity towards

  political aspirants. In this regard, many Muslim polities have criticised

  political parties outright, including Egypt, Pakistan and Morocco, and have

  been advocating banning them.64 Still, that would not resolve the matter of reconciling divergent voices in a society.

  Tenth, and one of the most important political values from the Qur’an, is

  the concept of ‘shura’ or consultation. This value is of such importance that

  not only is it stated numerous times in the Qur’an, but also an entire chapter

  is entitled after it. Unequivocally, the Qur’an states, ‘And those who answer

  the call of their Lord and establish prayer, and who conduct their affairs by

  consultation and spend out of what We bestow on them for sustenance’. 65

  Even the Prophet Muhammad was directed by God to take decisions with

  mutual consultation:

  It is part of the Mercy of Allah that you do deal gently with them. Were

  you severe or harsh-hearted, they would have broken away from about

  you: So pass over their faults, and ask for Allah’s forgiveness for them

  and consult them in affairs of the moment. Then, when you have taken a

  decision, put your trust in Allah. For Allah loves those who put their

  trust in Him. 66

  Thus, the practice of ‘shura’ enables people to participate in the decision-

  making process and provides legitimacy to the leaders for the authority they

  exercise. Hamid adds that the people, or Ummah, and the Qur’an reinforce each

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  other in the process of guidance, and the state, or system of governance,

  becomes a limited institution.67 It is limited on one side by the Book and the other side by the people. As such, the Islamic state has to apply the self-evident

  Qur’anic principles verbatim and refer the nonspecific ones to the people, to

  clarify their ambiguity and reach a consensual decision thereon. Therefore,

  consultation is a necessary measure for ascertaining the truth and protecting

  both the leadership and the people from error. Moreover, the majority opinion

  of the people cannot be bypassed or superseded by the opinion of a single

  person, including that of the leader, since the leader is also bound by the

  truth, which has gained the consensus of the people.68

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  The Prophetic sayings, similarly, substantiate this style of consultative

  decision-making and support the principle of accountability:

  I am only a human being [Prophet Muhammad – pbuh], and you people

  come to me with your cases; and it may be that one of you can present

  his case eloquently in a more convincing way than the other, and I give

  my verdict according to what I hear. So, if I judge by error and give the

  right of a brother to his other brother then [the latter] should not take it,

  for I am giving him only a piece of fire.69

  Here it is clear that the Prophet Muhammad establishes that his decision allows

  room for consultative decision-making and encourages honesty within litigants.

  Admittedly, the exact form of mutual consultation has not been described,

  although the principle of engaging the citizenry and consulting people has

  been established both by the Qur’an and the Prophet Muhammad. This is

  crucial since it indicates a relationship between those who govern and those

  who are governed.

  Eleventh, there are two other important deductions that are drawn from

  authorizing consultation – namely, consensus and accountability. To explain,

  let us describe ‘shura’ as an act of consultation, whereas ‘ijma’ involves the

  consensual decision taken by the majority following the consultation process.