75
80 Mottahedeh, Roy. Loyalty and Leadership in an Early Islamic Society, (London: I.B. Tauris, 2001) p. 8.
81 Nasr, Sayyid Hossein. Muhammad: Man of God, (Chicago, IL: Kazi Publications, 1995) p. 11.
82 Muslehuddin, Muhammad. Islam and It’s Political System, p. 53.
83 Mottahedeh, Roy. Loyalty and Leadership in an Early Islamic Society, p. 12.
84 Muslehuddin, Muhammad. Islam and It’s Political System, p. 110.
85 Al-Talib, Hisham. Training Guide for Islamic Workers, p. 59.
86 Shaban, M. A. Islamic History: A New Interpretation, p. 26.
87 Sunan Abu Dawud. 19: 2955.
88 Muslehuddin, Muhammad. Islam and It’s Political System, p. 113.
89 Ibid., p. 114.
90 Beekun, Rafik and Badawi, Jamal. Leadership: An Islamic Perspective, (Beltsville, MD: Amana Publications, 1999) p. 42.
91 Al-Talib, Hisham. Training Guide for Islamic Workers, p. 68.
92 Beekun, Rafik and Badawi, Jamal. Leadership: An Islamic Perspective, p. 45.
93 Ibid., p. 48.
94 Khaldun, Ibn. The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004) p. 57
95 Muslehuddin, Muhammad. Islam and It’s Political System, p. 114.
96 Sunan Abu Dawud. Hadith.
97 Muslehuddin, Muhammad. Islam and It’s Political System, p. 114.
98 Ibid.
99 Beekun, Rafik and Badawi, Jamal. Leadership: An Islamic Perspective, p. 52.
100 Ibid., p. 55.
101 Ibid., p. 56.
102 Al-Talib, Hisham. Training Guide for Islamic Workers, p. 71.
103 Ibid., p. 72.
104 Shaban, M. A. Islamic History: A New Interpretation, p. 63.
105 Sahih Muslim. Hadith.
106 Shaban, M. A. Islamic History: A New Interpretation, p. 71.
107 Muslehuddin, Muhammad. Islam and It’s Political System, p. 114.
108 Al-Talib, Hisham. Training Guide for Islamic Workers, p. 74.
109 Shaban, M. A. Islamic History: A New Interpretation, p. 73.
110 Ibid., p. 72.
111 Ibid., p. 75.
112 Ibid., p. 76.
113 Esposito, John. What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001) p. 38.
114 Beekun, Rafik and Badawi, Jamal. Leadership: An Islamic Perspective, p. 61.
115 Shaban, M.A. Islamic History: A New Interpretation, p. 81.
116 Ibid., p. 1.
117 Ibid., p. 84.
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118 Ibid., p. 85.
5
Islamic civic culture1
Introduction
Following an exposition of the major political values in Islam, using the Qur’an,
Sunnah and Rashidun Era, this study asks, ‘What kind of city would the con-
cretization of those values create?’ ‘What kind of political order best represents
those values?’ Or, ‘What would be the guiding eidos in that political system?’
This chapter aims to highlight the consequence of those political values as
creating an Islamic civic culture, a high classicalism which may be referred to
as ‘La Convivencia’. That term describes the period of Moorish rule over the
Iberian Peninsula – present-day Portugal, Spain and Sicily, in which Jewish,
Christian and Muslim communities positively engaged with one another and
exchanged ideas in relative harmony. Moreover, during the renown ‘millet’
system in Ottoman Turkey the words used to describe civilizational harmony
were ‘hosgoru’, which literally means ‘to see the other in a good way’.2 These historical eras impressed upon the world a lasting legacy of civilizational
concord that would resonate in cities of pax Islamica from Toledo, Seville,
Lisbon and Palermo to, more contemporary, Sarajevo and Istanbul. It was this
Islamic civic culture that initiated the world’s first truly cosmopolitan cities.
Literally, both the terms ‘La Convivencia’ and ‘Hosgoru’ have been translated
as positive intellectual forces for encouraging interaction, holding exacting
sophistication and nuance. They incorporate a host of other beliefs, values and
ideas that revolve around the embracing interplay of racial, cultural and religious
forces. However, in this chapter it is used to describe the normative values of
plurality found in the Qur’an and Prophetic sayings. Implementing those values
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is not an option, but rather a testament to fulfilling an individual’s covenant
with God and part of a conceptual framework that mandates it throughout
society. Therefore, this understanding of tolerance differs from the traditional
definitions and nuances associated with those terms, which may be associated with
hegemony. More clearly, Marcuse speaks of this hegemonic tendency when he
suggests that ‘today tolerance appears again as what it was in its origins, at the
beginning of the modern period – a partisan goal, a subversive liberating notion
and practice. Conversely, what is proclaimed and practiced as tolerance today, is
in many of its most effective manifestations serving the cause of oppression’.3
Islamic civic culture
77
That, however, is not what plurality and tolerance, according to Islamic civic
culture, do. Instead, this chapter seeks to elucidate the parameters of coexistence
in Islam and, hopefully, to build bridges of mutual understanding.
In our global village, a comprehensive understanding of Islam and the
Judeo–Christo–Islamic relationship is becoming increasingly important. 4
Together, these three Abrahamic faiths make up more than half of the world’s
population. In particular, Islam and Christianity are the world’s fastest growing
religions. More importantly, these three faith-based communities inherit a com-
monality in religious foundations, values and interests in the modern world. In
that regard, as John Esposito and Dalia Mogahed succinctly state, a better
understanding of what makes us similar and what makes us different can enable
us to transcend barriers of prejudice and strengthen our sense of togetherness. 5
Hence, in this chapter, we shall attempt to understand the spirit of coexistence in
Islam, first by discussing the importance of analyzing this issue – the proverbial
‘Why?’; second, by proceeding to establish a conceptual framework for
mutual acceptance and tolerance as premised in Islam – ‘How?’; and third, by
delineating a normative framework for understanding coexistence in Islam,
utilizing the Qur’an and the Sunnah – ‘What?’ In conclusion, we will examine,
explore and discuss those findings, along with their implications for an Islamic
civic culture that nurtures a better understanding between civilizations.
The dynamics of ‘coexistence in Islam’, in reality, can occur in a threefold
manner. First, they can occur in a Muslim context where intolerance may exist
in groups with competing Islamic schools of thought. Second, they can occur in
the interrelationship between Muslim and non-Muslim communities in territorial
space where Muslims are in a majority, but with a substantial non-Muslim
minority, for instance in Malaysia, Nigeria or Lebanon. Third, they can arise
where Muslims are in a minority context such as in Russia, but especially where
there is a marked racial and cultural diversity, s
uch as in Europe and the United
States. However, while those specific contextual dynamics exist, it is assumed
that the normative values outlined throughout this book substantiate them-
selves, from the textual sources of Islam. Moreover, those substantiated values are
intended for all normative times and circumstances. Granted, shifts may occur in
the practice or applicability of normative values in changing environments. Yet
our intention in this chapter is to substantiate, based on evidence, the values
of coexistence that Islam espouses under all normative situations. By doing
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so, it aims to articulate the contours of an Islamic civic culture. Of course, it
does not look at the circumstances that people may or may not find themselves
in and take reality as representative of normative value. It aims, purely and
simply, to analyze the principles of ‘coexistence’ in Islamic theological sources
of legitimacy, irrespective of whether they are implemented.
The importance of peaceful coexistence
To begin with, the tremendous interdependence of our era underlines the
importance of successfully removing racial, cultural and religious barriers in a
78
Islam and Pakistan’s Political Culture
manner that nurtures understanding, togetherness and tolerance. The rapid
coming together of the world, therefore, both poses risks and provides opportu-
nities. The potential and positive aspects of ‘globalization’ rest with an honest
pursuit of equity, fairness, and even-handedness – or simply justice – of
people among themselves.6 The ideals of ‘peaceful coexistence’, ‘consultation,’
‘unity through diversity,’ ‘pluralism’ and ‘multiculturalism’ respond to the
challenges of globalization through inclusion. Where motivating drives
are other than genuine inclusion, the result is hegemony and perpetual strife
between those who support the status quo and those who wish to uproot it;
between the inward concentration of wealth in the hands of the few, and the
explosive poverty of the many.7
In parts of the Middle East, authoritative power structures and the resultant
sociopolitical system ridicule the most sacred and cherished traditions of a
subjugated populace. Illiteracy, gender rights, unemployment, inadequate educa-
tion, poor infrastructure, lack of clean – or continuous – sources of water, and
limited sociopolitical mobility aggravate tensions.8 More importantly, political exclusion and corresponding oppression by repressive regimes obliterate opportunities for stability. These factors are further inflamed with a continuous
‘demonization’ of Arab and Muslim peoples; this makes finding solutions ever
more difficult. The problems are socio-economic and political – religion is of
minor significance but is tactfully exploited to represent the totality of the crisis.
Also, this demonization of Arabs and Muslims results in the justification for
political suppression by both internal and external forces. Considerable discus-
sion and analysis have revolved around this alleged ‘battle for the soul of
Islam’ when in reality the battle exists somewhere else entirely. 9 There is no
‘great battle’, there is only a ‘great smokescreen’ concealing the actual fiend.
Most newspapers and media conglomerates, owned by self-proclaimed
heroes of conservatism, are clumsily attempting to baffle the electorate in the
closed arms of the neocon bully, masquerading as the incorruptus domina, when
in reality things are far less chaste. 10 This study aims to confront this process of demonization of Islam – its way of life, its value system and its moral force.
Hoping to redirect attention toward root causes, this chapter begins by
establishing the spirit of peaceful coexistence in Islam.
A clear distinction exists between normative and non-normative frameworks.
By normative framework this study means to delineate the spirit of coexistence
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and plurality in Islam, as emanating from the Qur’an and the Sunnah under all
circumstances that are free from duress of any sort, including between Muslims
themselves and between Muslims and non-Muslims in Muslim majority
areas, as well as where Muslims are living as minorities. Non-normative
frameworks arise from extraordinary situations that could include war, political
exclusion, oppression, deprivation or the doctrine of necessity.
Thus, studying the concept of tolerance, mutual acceptance and peaceful
coexistence is extremely important since the political setbacks in parts of
the Muslim world are presented as purely religious when they are actually
socio-economic and geopolitical. Representing Islam as the magnus malum – or
Islamic civic culture
79
great evil – distracts from the really pressing issues at the source of the crisis. It is not Islam but rather a host of other geopolitical or socio-economic issues
that are the basis of the malaise in Muslim society. If anything, the sacred is
being manipulated by vested interests to legitimize their socio-economic or
geopolitical purposes. These manipulations lead to two tragedies: first, indigenous
leaders perpetuate their illegitimate power, pacify the masses and suppress basic
rights; and second, foreign nations attempt to promote their vested interests
vis-à-vis Muslim states. 11 Phrases that are used while dealing with the news about Muslim societies are highly loaded, poorly thought out and are often undefined.
For example, these include ‘political Islam’, ‘Islamists’, ‘separation of religion and politics’ and ‘secular Islam’. Without adequate definition these terms serve only to perpetuate misunderstandings. Similarly, the demarcation between sacred and
secular is itself open to a variety of opinions and counter-opinions, and more often than not is misleading and simplistic.12 Nevertheless, this analysis focuses on the spirit of coexistence in Islam, which reveals that while religion may be used as a
unifying factor in a Muslim context, it does not negate the pressing issues for
which religion, as a source of moral inspiration, is then taken to motivate action.
The conceptual framework for inclusion
In Islam, the imperative manifestation of inclusivity is profound, conceptual
and required. It is not an option, but rather a testament to fulfilling an indivi-
dual’s covenant with God and part of a conceptual framework that mandates it
throughout society. To clarify, the conceptual framework for inclusion is
a consequence of the Islamic principle of Tawhid – unity of God, truth and
humanity. 13 Moreover, there is a direct epistemological and ontological link between these Islamic principles and the normative, conceptual and non-optional manifestations of a theologically mandated ‘inclusive’ Islamic
society. This process is achieved in two ways: first, horizontally, in which the
ideals as articulated in the Qur’an and the Sunnah which represent the direction
of human behavior are delineated; second, vertically, in which those principles
are meant to be manifested in society.
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Figure 5.1 The normative characteristics of Islamic Civic Culture
80
Islam and Pakistan’s Political Culture
In other words, tolerance in Islam is predicated on both horizontal and
vertical equality. The ideals, as articulated in the Qur’an and the Sunnah,
establish a horizontal equality and plurality based on a coherent epistemological
and ontological rationale. Then it is intended to flow vertically downwards
from the source to humanity in order that it manifests throughout society.
Therefore, tolerance is not noticeable because those with the power to institute
their choices over the rest of society do so at their discretion. On the contrary,
it is mandatory since, according to Islamic sources, God has created all
human beings in a state of equality and goodness and requires an appreciation
of diversity. 14 Overall, tolerance is both the inherent recognition and embracing of diversity and plurality.
The spirit of coexistence in Islam: a normative framework
To make clear a coherent philosophical outlook on coexistence in Islam, we
begin with verses from the Qur’an that declare that God, after having created
every single soul, asked them to testify that there is nothing worthy of worship
except Him. The Qur’an states: ‘When your Lord drew forth from the children
of Adam, from their loins, their descendants, and made them testify concerning
themselves [saying]: “Am I not your Lord?” they said: “Yes! We do testify!”
[This was] lest you should say on the Day of Resurrection: “Of this we were
unaware.”’15 Interestingly, these verses declare that all of humanity – past, present and future generations – were, at once, drawn forth from Adam’s
children and asked to make witness to God. This incidence, imbuing every
human being with intrinsic goodness and recognition of the Divine, holds
significant philosophical ramifications from which the origins of tolerance
and the spirit of coexistence spring. Implicit is the idea that every single
human being had an indistinguishable spiritual experience and this represents
an unequivocal endorsement of an inherent kinship in the entire human
family. Moreover, it suggests that within all of humanity exist the same seeds
of spirituality that were first planted when God created our souls and asked
Islam and Pakistan’s Political Culture Page 17