The Life and Passion of William of Norwich (Penguin Classics)

by Thomas of Monmouth

  18. these holy days: Holy Week, the week before Easter.

  19. someone caused: ‘aliquo insinuante’ could also mean that someone had informed them.

  20. as a priest he could not be absent from the synod: On the conventions regarding participation in synods, see Cheney, English Synodalia, pp. 14–15.

  21. sacrists: On the system of office-holders in medieval monastic communities, known as obedientiaries, see Slavin, Bread and Ale for the Brethren, p. 11.

  22. a candle and a penny: On offerings at shrines, see Ronald C. Finucane, The Rescue of the Innocents: Endangered Children in Medieval Miracles (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997), pp. 13–15.

  23. false as true: The metaphor of true and false coinage is used here.

  24. Mulbarton: A village in Norfolk.

  25. everything that was bad, the total absence of good: Augustine’s discussion of how demons deceive was an influential one; see Gillian R. Evans, Augustine on Evil (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), pp. 108–11. See also note 10 above.

  26. winged oars: Here remigio alarum echoes ‘uolat ille per aëra magnum remigio alarum ac Libyae citus astitit oris,’ Aeneid I, ll. 300–301, in P. Vergili Maronis, Opera, ed. R. A. B. Mynors (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 112; ‘He flies across the great air; using wings as oars, he quickly lands on Libyan shores,’ The Aeneid of Virgil, trans. Allen Mandelbaum (Toronto: Bantam, 1981), p. 11, ll. 424–5.

  27. monks’ cook: See note 20 to Book One. On the relationship between the bishop and cooks, see Brett, The English Church, pp. 143, 177.

  28. went into labour: On reports of childbirth miracles in this period, see Hilary Powell, ‘The “Miracle of Childbirth”: The Portrayal of Parturient Women in Medieval Miracle Narratives’, Social History of Medicine 25 (2012), pp. 795–811; on the general dearth of such cases, see pp. 795–8.

  29. What wonderful speed: Speed is often emphasized a sign of a miraculous cure; see also Pierre-André Sigal, L’homme et le miracle dans la France médiévale (Xle–XIIe siècle) (Paris: Cerf, 1985), p. 69.

  30. an incubus demon: Incubi were male demons who sought to have sexual intercourse with women; see the contemporary mention in Walter Map, De Nugis Curialium: Courtiers’ Trifles, ed. and trans. M. R. James, revised by C. N. L. Brooke and R. A. B. Mynors (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), pp. 158–9: ‘Audiuimus demones incubos et succubos, et concubitus eorum periculosos’, ‘We have heard of demons that are incubi and succubi, and of the dangers of union with them.’ However, this is not the case here: the incubus seeks to make the virgin break her vow of chastity and ‘marry’ him. A tradition of worrying about demons seducing male ascetics and chaste Christian women goes as far back as Jerome’s hagiographic work, such as the Lives of Paul the Hermit and Hilarion; see Susan Weingarten, The Saint’s Saint: Hagiography and Geography in Jerome (Leiden: Brill, 2005), pp. 70, 94, 230–1.

  31. Dunwich: A village in Suffolk.

  32. psalms which she had learned: High-born people knew their psalms, like St Kenelm’s murderous sister, who read them backwards when she heard that his body had been discovered; see William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum, Book II, ch. 211, pp. 390–93.

  33. You have battled with an evil enemy: There may be a faint echo of Jacob’s struggle (Genesis 32:28), though he fought God (in the shape of an angel) and the girl fought a demon.

  34. HERBERT the bishop: On Herbert of Losinga, see English Episcopal Acta VI, pp. xxviii–xxxi.

  35. Wichemann the monk: On Wichemann, see Book One, note 45, p. 211.

  36. There they prayed … to the holy martyr: See Finucane, The Rescue of the Innocents, pp. 12–13.

  37. what virtuous power … himself had founded: See the treatment of this case in Watkins, History and the Supernatural in Medieval England, pp. 118–19.

  38. suffering does not … its cause [does]: This is a saying based on Augustine’s sermon on the birth of the Martyr Vincent: ‘Vincentii in poenis fortitudo ex adjutorio Christi. Martyres discernit causa, non poena’, Sermo 275.1, Patrologia Latina 39, ed. J.-P. Migne (Paris, 1865), col. 1254. It is also cited by John of Salisbury in a letter to John of Canterbury, Bishop of Poitiers, about the case of Thomas Becket: ‘Martyres discernit causa, non poena’ The Letters of John of Salisbury II, Letter 305, at pp. 726–7.

  39. dropsy: A condition (oedema) characterized by an excess of fluid in the body.

  40. various ailments … cured: For a table that plots the occurrence of illnesses in miracles accounts, see Robert Bartlett, Why Can the Dead Do Such Great Things? Saints and Worshippers from the Martyrs to the Reformation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013), p. 343.

  41. The Spirit … gospel to the poor: Missing the Latin ‘propter quod unxit me’; see Luke 4:18 ‘Spiritus Domini super me: propter quod unxit me, evangelizare pauperibus misit me’; ‘The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, wherefore he has anointed me to preach the gospel to the poor.’

  42. unlearned: Idiotae echoes Acts 4:13 with reference to Peter and John: ‘videntes autem Petri constantiam et Iohannis conperto quod homines essent sine litteris et idiotae admirabantur’; ‘Now seeing the constancy of Peter and of John, understanding that they were illiterate and ignorant men, they wondered.’

  43. Pancras, Pantaleon and Celsus: On child saints, see André Vauchez, Sainthood in the Later Middle Ages, trans. Jean Birrell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 150–51.

  44. set a child amid … kingdom of heaven: See Matthew 18:2–4: ‘et advocans Iesus parvulum statuit eum in medio eorum et dixit amen dico vobis nisi conversi fueritis et efficiamini sicut parvuli non intrabitis in regnum caelorum quicumque ergo humiliaverit se sicut parvulus iste hic est maior in regno caelorum’; ‘And Jesus calling unto him a little child, set him in the midst of them, And said: Amen I say to you, unless you be converted, and become as little children, you shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven. Whosoever therefore shall humble himself as this little child, he is the greater in the kingdom of heaven.’

  45. why did the Lord … confound the powerful: An echo of 1 Corinthians 1:27–8: ‘sed quae stulta sunt mundi elegit Deus ut confundat sapientes et infirma mundi elegit Deus ut confundat fortia et ignobilia mundi et contemptibilia elegit Deus et quae non sunt ut ea quae sunt destrueret’; ‘But the foolish things of the world hath God chosen, that he may confound the wise; and the weak things of the world hath God chosen, that he may confound the strong. And the base things of the world, and the things that are contemptible, hath God chosen, and things that are not, that he might bring to nought things that are.’

  46. invite to His … and the lame: Paraphrase of Luke 14:11–13: ‘quia omnis qui se exaltat humiliabitur et qui se humiliat exaltabitur dicebat autem et ei qui se invitaverat cum facis prandium aut cenam noli vocare amicos tuos neque fratres tuos neque cognatos neque vicinos divites ne forte et ipsi te reinvitent et fiat tibi retributio sed cum facis convivium voca pauperes debiles claudos caecos’; ‘Because every one that exalteth himself, shall be humbled; and he that humbleth himself, shall be exalted. And he said to him also that had invited him: When thou makest a dinner or a supper, call not thy friends, nor thy brethren, nor thy kinsmen, nor thy neighbours who are rich; lest perhaps they also invite thee again, and a recompense be made to thee. But when thou makest a feast, call the poor, the maimed, the lame, and the blind.’

  47. And He placed … in hell: See Luke 16:20–25: ‘et erat quidam mendicus nomine Lazarus qui iacebat ad ianuam eius ulceribus plenus cupiens saturari de micis quae cadebant de mensa divitis sed et canes veniebant et lingebant ulcera eius factum est autem ut moreretur mendicus et portaretur ab angelis in sinum Abrahae mortuus est autem et dives et sepultus est in inferno elevans oculos suos cum esset in tormentis videbat Abraham a longe et Lazarum in sinu eius et ipse clamans dixit pater Abraham miserere mei et mitte Lazarum ut intinguat extremum digiti sui in aqua ut refrigeret linguam meam quia crucior in hac flamma et dixit illi Abraham fili recordare quia recepisti bona in vita tua et
Lazarus similiter mala nunc autem hic consolatur tu vero cruciaris; ‘And there was a certain beggar, named Lazarus, who lay at his gate, full of sores, desiring to be filled with the crumbs that fell from the rich man’s table, and no one did give him; moreover the dogs came, and licked his sores. And it came to pass, that the beggar died, and was carried by the angels into Abraham’s bosom. And the rich man also died: and he was buried in hell. And lifting up his eyes when he was in torments, he saw Abraham afar off, and Lazarus in his bosom: And he cried, and said: Father Abraham, have mercy on me, and send Lazarus, that he may dip the tip of his finger in water, to cool my tongue: for I am tormented in this flame. And Abraham said to him: Son, remember that thou didst receive good things in thy lifetime, and likewise Lazareth evil things, but now he is comforted; and thou art tormented.’

  48. the innocents ‘of two years old or less’: See Matthew 2:16: ‘tunc Herodes videns quoniam inlusus esset a magis iratus est valde et mittens occidit omnes pueros qui erant in Bethleem et in omnibus finibus eius a bimatu et infra secundum tempus quod exquisierat a magis’; ‘Then Herod perceiving that he was deluded by the wise men, was exceeding angry; and sending killed all the men children that were in Bethlehem, and in all the borders thereof, from two years old and under, according to the time which he had diligently inquired of the wise men.’ On the theme of innocent martyrdom, see Paul A. Hayward, ‘The Idea of Innocent Martyrdom in Late Tenth- and Eleventh-Century English Hagiology’, Studies in Church History 30 (1993), pp. 81–92.

  49. dierum penalium: dierum penalium may be a miscopying of dierum paschalium (‘paschal days’, the feast of Passover, which lasts eight days) and would fit the context far better. I am most grateful to Philipp Nothaft for an exchange on this matter.

  50. prove the truth of the matter with several proofs: Since Thomas aims here to refute accusations or doubts about the veneration of William as a martyr, I have chosen to translate argumentum as ‘proof’. On the rhetorical meaning of argumentum, see Peter Ainsworth, ‘Legendary History: Historia and Fabula’, in Historiography in the Middle Ages, ed. D. M. Deliyannis (Leiden: Brill, 2003), pp. 387–416; at p. 389, and Despres, ‘Adolescence and Sanctity’, pp. 39–40, 49–51, 53–4.

  51. the Jews’ house: On Jews’ houses in England, with reference to one in Norwich, see Anthony Quiney, Town Houses of Medieval Britain (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2003), pp. 177–81.

  52. Christian woman … a servant for them: Both Christian and Jewish religious leaders considered the employment of Christian maids in Jewish households to be fraught with the danger of unwelcome religious influence, and also of ritual contamination; see Anna Sapir Abulafia, Christian–Jewish Relations, 1000–1300: Jews in the Service of Medieval Christendom (Harlow: Pearson, 2011), pp. 63–4, 99–100, and Hannah Meyer, ‘Female Moneylending and Wet-Nursing in Jewish–Christian Relations in Thirteenth-Century England’, dissertation submitted for a PhD, University of Cambridge, 2009, pp. 255–6.

  53. a purse: For an image of a purse, see Cherry, ‘Leather’, p. 317, fig. 162.

  54. had he agreed … they were accused: In the twelfth century kin were deemed to be the injured party in the killing of their relatives. They could exact revenge or settle for compensation.

  55. slaves in foreign lands: On the concept of service in Jewish–Christian relations, see Abulafia, Christian–Jewish Relations, passim.

  56. leaders and rabbis … at Narbonne: See Introduction, pp. xxiii–xxiv.

  57. William of Hastings: A William of Hastings served as steward to the monastery of Bury St Edmunds. See reference in CUL Add 7481, J63 (1 February 1895).

  58. What is put … rather its cause: See note 38 above.

  59. Simon de Nodariis: Or de Nogariis or de Novers. The family’s chief manor, held from the Bishop of Norwich, was Swanton Novers in Norfolk. On the relationship between de Nodariis and the bishop, see English Episcopal Acta VI, pp. l–li. It is notable that while de Nodariis frequently witnessed the charters of Bishop Everard, he no longer did so for Bishop William. This casts doubt on the imagined scenario of William’s impassioned defence of Simon in the royal court. For some charters witnessed by de Nodariis, see Barbara Dodwell, ‘Some Charters Relating to the Honour of Bracton’, in A Medieval Miscellany for Doris Mary Stenton, ed. Patricia M. Barnes and C. F. Slade (London: Pipe Roll Society, 1962), pp. 147–65; nos. 2–3, pp. 158–9.

  60. London for burial: The Jews of Norwich did not have burial rights in that city, so they were obliged to bury elsewhere; see V. D. Lipman, The Jews of Medieval Norwich, ed. A. M. Habermann (London: Jewish Historical Society of England, 1967), pp. 124–5.

  61. the Jews assembled … the aforesaid Jew: The Jews approached the king and accused Simon de Nodariis of killing – or arranging to kill – Eleazar. Thomas offers a reconstructed set of legal speeches, led by Bishop Turbe, whose eloquence is praised in the Prologue (p. 3). These speeches appear after Thomas’s seven arguments against those who doubted William’s virtue. It is to be read alongside the previous account of the legal exchanges in the episcopal court during the 1144 synod. William Turbe is presented as acting on behalf of the accused as his overlord, and as a person familiar with secular as well as ecclesiastical procedures.

  62. an imaginary account of the trial: Composition of speeches or poetry in the style of a classical author was a common exercise in schools in the twelfth century, aimed at instilling in students the best rhetorical practice. See Jan Ziolkowski, ‘The Highest Form of Compliment: Imitatio in Medieval Latin Culture’, in Poetry and Philosophy in the Middle Ages: A Festschrift for Peter Dronke, ed. John Marenbon (Leiden: Brill, 2001), pp. 293–307.

  63. they fell among thieves: An echo of the parable of the Good Samaritan. See Luke 10:30: ‘suscipiens autem Iesus dixit homo quidam descendebat ab Hierusalem in Hiericho et incidit in latrones qui etiam despoliaverunt eum et plagis inpositis abierunt semivivo relicto’; ‘And Jesus answering, said: A certain man went down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell among robbers, who also stripped him, and having wounded him went away, leaving him half dead.’

  64. But wait patiently … a poisonous tree: This sounds like a citation, but I have not been able to identify it.

  65. rhetorical disputation: This section is a declamatio. This was a common rhetorical exercise in the classical tradition, and for its followers in the Middle Ages. It required an effort of imagination and psychological insight, as well as skill in the creation of an ‘elaborately ornamented and rehearsed speech on a fictional situation or hypothetical lawsuit’, Richard A. Lanham, A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2nd edn, 1991), p. 44.

  66. drops of blood … through his posterior: There was a long-standing myth that Jewish men suffered from anal bleeding, a punishment for their role in the Crucifixion; see Willis Johnson, ‘The Myth of Jewish Male Menses’, Journal of Medieval History 24 (1998), pp. 273–95. See also Bale, Feeling Persecuted, pp. 81–2.

  67. His innocent blood … our children: Matthew 27:25: ‘et respondens universus populus dixit sanguis eius super nos et super filios nostros’; ‘And the whole people answering, said: His blood be upon us and our children.’ Also Pilate in Matthew 27: 24: ‘Innocens ego sum a sanguine justi hujus: vos videritis’; ‘I am innocent of the blood of this just man; look you to it.’

  68. to elect its bishop: On episcopal election, see Brett, The English Chruch, pp. 104–112.

  69. London: For ‘London’ Thomas uses the name ‘Trinovante’. Tacitus and Caesar describe the Trinovantes as a Celtic tribe from Essex. They rebelled against the Romans together with the Iceni. The use of the name for London – with the suggestion of its being the New Troy – was the invention of Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historia Regum Britannorum I, 17. Following Geoffrey, Henry of Huntingdon used it, too, referring to Brutus: ‘Edificauit proinde Trinouantum in memoriale sempiternum, id est Troiam nouam, quam nunc Lundoniam uocamus’, ‘He founded Trinovantum as an everlasting memorial, that is “New T
roy”, which nowadays we call London’, in Historia Anglorum: The History of the English People, ed. and trans. Diana Greenway (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), Book 8, pp. 560–61; also Book 8, pp. 570–73.

  70. Mileham: A village in Norfolk, situated between Fakenham and East Dereham, of which the Cheneys were lords.

  BOOK THREE

  1. Alan of Setchy: The uncle of Prior Richard of Norwich.

  2. the sacrist: See Biographical Register of the English Cathedral Priories of the Province of Canterbury, c.1066–1540, ed. Joan Greatrex (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), p. 572.

  3. Holy Trinity Church in Canterbury: i.e., Canterbury Cathedral.

  4. the third book: While working on his translation, Jessopp wrote to James about Book Three: ‘I suspect it is the most repulsive section of the work,’ Add 7481, J56 (11 April 1894).

  5. I, Thomas of Norwich: ‘ego Thomas Norwici’; this is the only occasion when Thomas assumes the name of his new home town.

  6. Elias: On Elias’s career, see Le Neve, Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae II, p. 59; also The Heads of Religious Houses I, p. 57. Elias succeeded William Turbe in 1146 and was succeeded by Richard before 1 March 1155; he may have died in the year 1150, as Thomas associates Elias’s death with the removal of the cloth in that year.

  7. the revelation of Gamaliel to Lucian occurred to me: See Acts 22:3: ‘Et dixit: ego sum vir Judaeus natus Tarso Ciliciae nutritus autem in ista civitate secus pedes Gamalihel eruditus juxta veritatem paternae legis aemulator legis sicut et vos omnes estis hodie’; ‘And he saith: I am a Jew, born at Tarsus in Cilicia, but brought up in this city, at the feet of Gamaliel, taught according to the truth of the law of the fathers, zealous for the law, as also all you are this day.’ Gamaliel and Nicodemus were believed to have buried the remains of St Stephen. The soul of Gamaliel was reported to have appeared to St Lucian in 415 and revealed the place of St Stephen’s relics. This is claimed by no less than Augustine, ‘Epistola Aviti ad Palchonium de reliquiis sancti Stephani et de Luciani epistola a se e graeco in Latinum versa,’ Patrologia Latina 41, ed. J.-P. Migne (Paris, 1845), cols. 805–8. Hence the Catholic tradition treats Gamaliel as a saint; see Taylor R. Marshall, The Catholic Perspective on Paul: Paul and the Origins of Catholic Christianity (Dallas, TX: Saint John Press, 2010), pp. 19–23.