Psychology- a Complete Introduction

by Sandi Mann

  PERSUASIVE ARGUMENTS THEORY (BURNSTEIN AND VINOKUR 1977)

  The idea here is that the main causal factor underlying group polarization is the exchange of information and arguments that precedes the collective decision. The basic premise is that in any discussion there are unlikely to be exactly the same number of arguments for and against a decision. There is likely to be a bias in one direction. Each individual may not, at first, have access to all these arguments and nor will all the individuals be aware of the same arguments. Once the discussion gets under way, all this different information comes out into the open; each person becomes more acquainted with more of the arguments supporting the dominant view (and perhaps one or two extra arguments against). The group members then act as rational ‘information processors’ and respond to the additional arguments and evidence by shifting their opinion even further in that direction.

  SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION THEORY (WETHERELL 1987)

  According to this view, what is happening when a group polarizes is that the group members are attempting to conform more closely to the normative position that they see as prototypical for their in-group. When a situation occurs to make their in-group identity more important, then the relevant in-group norms become more extreme so as to clearly differentiate them from those of the out-group – hence polarization is enhanced.

  Groupthink

  The discussion so far has been concerned with the outcomes of group decisions in terms of their level of risk. This section now discusses the quality of the group decision-making process that leads to the outcomes. It might be intuitively thought that groups would make better decisions than individuals because individuals are subject to attitude biases, prejudice and other processes that being with others might be expected to cancel out. However, research shows that groups are subject to other problems that can actually mean that group decision-making results in poorer-quality decisions than those made by individuals.

  Spotlight: Group formation

  A model of group development, first proposed by Bruce Tuckman in 1965, maintained that all groups go through four stages when they develop: Forming (the initiation stage when individuals are learning about each other and the tasks), Storming (when conflict is at its most intense), Norming (when group norms start to emerge) and Performing (when the group is at its most functional).

  Groupthink is a term coined by the social psychologist Irving Janis in 1972, to describe faulty decisions caused by group pressures. Janis analysed a number of American foreign-policy decisions made between 1940 and 1970 (the attempted invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs in 1961, the bombing of North Vietnam in 1965 and the lack of defence of Pearl Harbor in 1941) and came to the conclusion that when these turned out badly (i.e. where US interests were damaged) the decision-making process was marked by five features:

  1 The group was very cohesive.

  2 It was typically isolated and insulated from information outside the group.

  3 The decision-makers rarely searched systematically through alternative options.

  4 The group was under pressure to make a decision.

  5 The group was dominated by a very directive leader.

  These five conditions lead to defective decision-making, which Janis calls ‘groupthink’. The symptoms of groupthink are as follows:

  • A cohesive group that is likely to exert pressures on dissenters to conform to the majority view

  • An illusion of unanimity and correctness: since everyone gives the impression of total agreement, this inhibits any search for alternatives and leads to rejection of other views

  • The negative stereotyping of out-groups, since they are the likely sources of alternative ideas or options

  • An illusion of invulnerability – the group feels invincible and that it can do no wrong.

  The results are that the group fails to consider alternatives to a preferred decision or action, it fails to examine the risks attached to the favoured decision and it does not engage in a very thorough information search about other possible options. Finally, groupthink means that there is a failure to develop contingency plans. All of this makes for the likelihood of poor-quality and risky decisions being made by groups, when compared with individuals.

  Dig deeper

  The website of Jane Elliot (of the Blue Eye / Brown Eye Experiment):

  http://www.janeelliott.com/

  More on groupthink: ‘Sinister Groupthink Powers the Modern World’, The Telegraph:

  http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/​environment/10853279/Sinister-groupthink-powers-the-modern-world.html

  Fact-check

  1 The advantage of stereotypes is that they:

  a Provide shortcuts to enable us to classify the world

  b Allow us to discriminate against people we don’t like

  c Help us to select the right person for a job

  d Allow people who are similar to stay together

  2 The confirmatory bias is:

  a When we are biased towards other people’s beliefs

  b When our biases lead to prejudice

  c When we seek out people to confirm what we believe

  d When we encounter someone who conforms to our stereotype and use that as confirmation of our beliefs

  3 Which of the following statements is correct?

  a People are prejudiced when they react in an emotional way to seeing or hearing a group that they hold stereotypes about

  b Discrimination is where we feel uncomfortable about someone simply because they are a member of a particular group

  c Discrimination allows us to make sense of the world

  d Everyone who holds a stereotype is prejudiced

  4 Attributional bias is when we:

  a Attribute negative motives to someone else’s behaviour

  b Make assumptions about our own and/or other people’s behaviour and motives

  c Attribute negative motives to our own behaviour

  d Are prejudiced against someone of a different racial group

  5 In internal attribution:

  a People infer that a person’s behaviour is due to personal factors

  b People infer that a person’s behaviour is due to external factors

  c People make a confirmatory bias

  d People reveal their prejudices

  6 The fundamental attribution error is:

  a The tendency to attribute our own behaviour to internal factors

  b The tendency to attribute other people’s behaviour to internal factors

  c The tendency to attribute other people’s behaviour to external factors

  d The tendency to attribute someone’s behaviour to the colour of their skin

  7 Which of the following is not part of an attitude?

  a Beliefs

  b Values

  c Behaviours

  d Skills

  8 Group polarization occurs when:

  a Groups make riskier or more extreme decisions than individuals

  b Groups fail to consider alternative plans

  c Groups are afraid to take risks

  d Groups make poor-quality decisions

  9 Groupthink occurs when:

  a A group is not very cohesive

  b A group is well integrated with the outside world

  c A group has plenty of time to make a decision

  d There is a very directive leader

  10 Which of the following is not a result of groupthink?

  a The group fails to consider alternatives to a preferred decision or action

  b It fails to examine the risks attached to the favoured decision

  c There is a failure to develop contingency plans

  d The group is very cohesive

  14

  Stress and mental health

  Mental health issues are a serious cause for concern and the statistics speak for themselves: one in four people experience some kind of mental health problem in the course of a year. This chapter examines some of the most common mental
health issues that affect people of different ages and looks at some of the causes, symptoms and treatments.

  Stress

  While many mental illnesses are hard to understand by those who have not experienced them, stress is one condition that most people understand only too well.

  Spotlight: Stress as a psychological term

  The term ‘stress’ is derived from the Latin word stringere, meaning ‘to draw tight’. The word has long been in use in physics to refer to the internal distribution of a force exerted on a material body, resulting in strain. It first became associated with mental health in the 1920s and 1930s, when psychologists began to use the term to refer to a mental strain or to a harmful environmental agent that could cause illness.

  Stress is, in fact, a perfectly normal reaction to events around us and it performed valued functions in our evolutionary past. For our ancestors, the stress reaction was essential for survival since it provided extra reserves of strength and energy so they could escape from predators or other threats.

  In 1935 the psychologist Walter Cannon developed the idea of the ‘flight or fight’ mechanism that is associated with the stress response today. This theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, priming the animal for fighting or fleeing. Hormones are the main players in the stress reaction, and when we are stressed they are released from our adrenal glands (near the pancreas) into the bloodstream with one aim: to prepare the body for flight or to fight. Both fighting and fleeing require extra strength in the arms and legs and more energy in the muscles. The goal is thus to divert as much oxygen-(and thus energy-)carrying blood as possible to the arm and leg muscles. To do this, the body stops concentrating on non-essential functions such as digestion that can wait until later. Blood is thus diverted from the stomach, skin and internal organs to other more important areas.

  Adrenalin is one hormone that is released from the adrenal glands (part of the endocrine system – see Chapter 17) to the bloodstream, and it leads to a faster heart rate and raised blood pressure as the heart works harder to pump blood around the body. Cortisol is another hormone released from the adrenal glands and its job is to act on the liver to convert protein (glycogen) to glucose (sugar), which is a major source of energy for us. This glucose thus provides the energy for blood to be pumped faster and for us to be able to run or fight with extra strength. If the body is repeatedly exposed to stress, the result is the repeated liberation of energy stores, which, by the very nature of modern-day stressors, are not usually utilized. This excess glucose (and the free fatty acids released from stored fat) clogs up the blood vessels contributing to the formation of plaques, which can lead to coronary heart disease.

  Spotlight

  Typically, it takes 20–30 minutes for cortisol levels to rise following an acute stressor.

  Another vital chemical is released from the hypothalamus in the brain (see Chapter 17). These are endorphins and they act as natural painkillers so that we feel less pain that would otherwise stop us being able to concentrate on fighting or fleeing.

  ‘It is how people respond to stress that determines whether they will profit from misfortune or be miserable.’

  M. Csikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience (New York: Harper & Row, 1990)

  All these reactions were ideal for our ancestors but are not so good for today when our threat is more likely to be a deadline, an angry boss or our demanding children than a predator. What was a valuable adaptive response to threat early in our evolutionary history is not much use in the face of the modern stresses of the twenty-first century. Furthermore, historically, the stress response was designed to combat relatively infrequent and life-threatening events whereas the stressors that we encounter now tend to be more frequent and rarely life-threatening. Consequently, the human stress response system is repeatedly activated. This leaves us with extra glucose surging through our muscles, which can result in the following symptoms:

  • Aching limbs: the build-up of glucose in the limbs can make our arms and legs feel heavy and tired. In addition, we tend to tense our muscles in preparation for flight or fight and this tension causes pain.

  • Neck ache: we tend to tense our neck muscles when stressed, which causes pain.

  • Tiredness: we feel tired because we have been burning up so much extra energy. This rapid mobilization of energy gives short-term benefits but longer-term exhaustion.

  • Dry mouth: the flow of saliva is reduced to the mouth as this is part of the non-essential digestive process.

  • Stomach-ache: blood is diverted away from this area so digestive mechanisms are reduced – this can lead to digestive problems and discomfort. Poor digestion for long periods can result in more serious stomach problems such as ulcers.

  • Dizziness: although we breathe more quickly when we are stressed, we tend to take more shallow breaths and thus we do not breathe in as much oxygen as deeply as when we are not stressed. This can lead to a slightly reduced supply to the brain, causing dizziness.

  • Illnesses: stress can also result in a lowered immune system, making the stressed person more vulnerable to illnesses such as colds and flu.

  When we remain stressed for long periods of time, or our stress levels rise frequently, we may experience more serious effects such as hypertension (raised blood pressure), which is the result of the heart continually working hard at pumping blood around the body extra quickly. This can escalate into cardiovascular disease as the increase in blood pressure can cause physical damage to the delicate lining of some blood vessels; the points where vessels branch into two (branch points) are particularly vulnerable and, if the smooth vessel lining is torn, the fatty acids and glucose released during the stress response cause further damage, as a result of a build-up of these fatty nutrients underneath the tear in the walls of the vessels. This process gives rise to plaques lining the blood vessels. Plaques occurring in arteries supplying the heart can lead to heart attacks. If they obstruct the flow of blood to the brain, they can cause strokes.

  Anxiety

  Related to stress is the condition labelled anxiety (sometimes called generalized anxiety disorder – GAD). Anxiety is a stress response that is normal in certain threatening situations. It is normal and even helpful to become anxious at times – for example, when faced with someone who is aggressive towards you or when approaching an important examination. Without anxiety, we would be less motivated to do something about the threatening situation, such as run away or study hard. Anxiety has special evolutionary value in that it would have helped our ancestors cope with anxiety-provoking situations (like an advancing predator or food shortage). This is because anxiety like stress and other powerful emotions can have a profound effect on the body. As our anxiety rises, the hypothalamus in the brain stimulates the pituitary gland at the base of the skull to release a range of hormones that affect every part of our body in one way or another (see Chapter 17). These hormones are similar to those released when we are stressed.

  People with GAD tend to feel generally anxious without there necessarily being a specific event or situation that is causing the anxiety. It is thought that GAD affects about 1 in 20 adults in the UK and the US. Slightly more women are affected than men, and the condition is most common in people in their 20s. GAD can cause both psychological and physical symptoms. Psychological symptoms include:

  • feeling restless

  • having a constant sense of dread or of impending doom

  • feeling constantly ‘on edge’

  • having problems concentrating on matters other than the worries

  • being easily distracted by worries or concerns

  • an inability to work effectively

  • feeling depressed or worthless.

  Physical symptoms include dizziness, tiredness, irregular heartbeat (palpitations), muscle aches, dry mouth, excessive sweating, shortness of breath, stomach-ache, nausea, diarrhoea, headache, irregular periods
, difficulty falling or staying asleep (insomnia).

  There are various theories to explain why some people suffer from GAD, including:

  • Life events theory: people often develop anxiety following a series of stressful life events such as moving house, divorce, bereavement and redundancy. If a few stressful life events happen close together, it is perhaps not surprising that sufferers can become every tense and anxious; they might have been able to bounce back from one event, but two or more can use up their coping resources. Life events can have another impact, too; people can learn to be anxious based on their life experiences. For example, if they have had a health scare in the past, or a close friend has, they may become excessively anxious when reading about health issues.

  • Thinking styles theory: some people may have a thinking style that lends itself to experiencing greater anxiety. For example, anxious people have a tendency to expect that the worst possible scenario will always occur and that they must constantly be on their guard in case something bad happens. Anxious people often think that, by thinking about the worse-case scenario, they are protecting themselves in some way from that event happening; either because they will be better prepared or because they superstitiously believe that worrying will prevent it actually happening. If they let their guard down, the terrible scenario might be ‘allowed’ to occur.

  Anxiety can be so severe that panic attacks can ensue; this is a sudden ‘rush of fear’ that peaks very quickly. This fear is accompanied by a range of quite debilitating physical and emotional symptoms and the whole experience is usually extremely frightening for the sufferer. The attack is often so frightening that the sufferer will do almost anything to avoid another one. It is thought that between 1 and 3.5 per cent of the population suffer from panic disorder (i.e. recurrent panic attacks) and they appear to be most common among adolescents and young adults.