Bitter Spring
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Silone, Ignazio: adolescent events of, 31; anticommunism of, 160, 185, 201, 208, 247; anti-fascism of, 10, 11, 73, 92, 102, 104, 112, 115, 119, 132, 133, 134, 143–46, 150–54, 207, 233, 234, 293, 310, 313, 329, 341; appearance of, 49, 79, 110, 163; arrests of, 76, 77, 79, 146, 147, 149, 153, 156, 319, 320, 350n; authenticity of, 14, 112; “bad Italian” charges against, 9, 12; birth of, 3–4, 29–30; childhood of, 30–34, 324; class betrayal of, 12; in Constituent Assembly, 178, 186; cultural formation of, 38; death of, 11, 156, 177, 179, 231, 282, 287–94, 296, 300, 322, 331, 340; despair of, 21–22, 48, 51, 52, 66, 100–101, 187, 211, 272, 274; difficult character of, 5–6, 9, 14, 50, 132–34, 174–75, 177, 244, 287, 329, 340; early intellectual formation of, 63–65; editorial work of, 4, 67, 69, 76, 183–84, 190, 192, 193, 194, 224, 236, 239–40, 248, 275–76, 305; education of, 34–35, 45, 48–52, 63, 101; Erasmian component of, 15; as European writer, 6, 238; family background of, 30–34; financial problems of, 288, 310–11; fining of, 63; formation as writer, 64–65, 119, 161–62; health problems of, 51–52, 71, 78, 92, 104, 112, 149, 155–56, 177, 217, 269–70, 272, 281, 283, 287–90; in Holy Land, 16, 22, 262–63, 332; honorary degrees of, 269; house arrest of, 156; identity of, xv, 3–6, 14, 177, 324; imprisonment of, 3–4, 77, 78–79, 105, 135, 147, 149, 154, 155, 171–72; interviews of, 30–31, 52–53, 71, 189, 210–11, 230–31, 255–56, 264, 270, 285–87, 289, 330; ironic humor of, 8, 29–30, 35, 49, 64, 71–73, 95, 127, 157, 210, 217, 234, 241, 249, 332, 338; jobs declined by, 195, 252–53; libel suit of, 313; literary prizes of, 10, 12, 251, 269–70, 280, 332; mental health problems of, 9, 27, 174; misanthropy of, 14; in Moscow, 71–72, 91–92, 121; name and name changes of, xv, 3–4, 30, 174, 345n, 367n; nonconformity of, 23, 31, 225; nostalgia and homesickness of, 67, 112, 284; pagan-Christian synthesis of, 3–4; personal traumas of, 15, 33–34, 41, 47, 49, 54, 81, 84–92, 131, 133, 284, 314; political and spiritual crisis of, 9; political ascent of, 66–67; political ideology clarified by, 146–55; political qualities lacking in, 9, 73, 190–91; political return of, 134, 143–46; psychoanalysis of, 105–106, 109, 180, 319, 321, 324, 365n; reading of, 64, 78, 242, 281; reinvention of, 13–14, 111; religious-political mix in, 4, 5; religious vocation of, 46; reputation problems of, 9–13; school flight and expulsion of, 45, 48; self-transformations of, 3–5; sexuality of, 109–10, 175, 318–19, 383n; silent, meditative, and melancholic nature of, 8–9, 14, 66, 109, 111, 129, 132, 243, 244, 271, 340; as special genre of intellectual, 16; speeches of, 70, 79, 182, 188–89, 197, 202–205, 210, 225, 227, 236–37, 260–61, 332, 340; suicidal tendencies of, 9, 15, 27, 52, 110, 149, 272–75, 292, 362n; Swiss exile of, see Switzerland, Silone’s exile in; at Third International, 67, 71–72; tomb of, ix–x, xvii, 290, 293, 341; visas denied to, 104; will and testament of, 101, 291–92, 293; worldly possessions of, 51; writing as need for, 112, 285
Silone, Ignazio, Fascist spying allegations against, 13, 15, 178, 295–330, 339, 341; colpevolisti vs. innocentisti and, 297, 300, 320; counterintelligence motives and, 309–10; Darina’s views on, 180–81, 309, 320–21; defenses against charges of, 308–309, 325–27; documents uncovered in support of, 11, 295–305, 312–13, 324, 327–28; Dreyfus affair compared with, 308; Gordon’s views on, 325; handwriting analysis and, 299; Luigi Murica character and, 138, 306, 323, 329; questions about, 327; Secret of Luca and, 306–307; “Silvestri” signature and, 295, 300–305, 309, 322, 327–28, 380n–82n; see also Bellone, Guido
“Silver Blaze” (Conan Doyle), 310
Sinyavsky, Andrey, 220, 224
“Situation of the `Ex’, The” (Silone), 222–23
Smith College, 123
Soccorso Rosso, 77, 80–81, 99
socialfascism theory, 92–94, 97
Socialisme libéral (Liberal Socialism) (Rosselli), 362n
“socialismo della povera gente, Il” (the socialism of the poor), 260
Socialist Party of Italian Workers (PSLI), 195
Socialists, socialism, 29–30, 31, 62, 103, 140, 183–92, 194–98, 208, 238, 253, 260; CCF and, 204, 205; Christian, 94, 111, 152–53, 249; democratic, 11, 68, 72, 92, 93, 94, 134, 147, 155; European, 173, 195–96; humanistic, 8, 183; industrial capitalism compared with, 59; liberal, 133, 134, 183; Milan bombing and, 84; in Pescina, 44; reformism vs. maximalism in, 153; revolution and, 255–56; risks taken by, 66; Romolo’s involvement with, 54–55; as serving of God, 5; Silone as, 48, 49, 52; Silone’s views on, 7–8, 37, 125, 134, 147, 152–53, 204, 206, 209, 227, 249, 271, 286, 292, 331, 332, 333, 338, 339; see also Italian Socialist Party; Italian Socialist Party of Proletarian Unity
Socialist Youth Federation, see Unione Giovanile Socialista
Socialist Youth Movement, 65
societé d’abord, 195
Société Européenne de Culture (SEC), 224
SOE (Special Operations Executive), British, 168, 171
Soldati, Mario, 205
Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 224, 243, 289, 378n
Sonderkommandos, 328–29
Sontag, Susan, 281
soul, Silone’s views on, 203, 205
Souvarine, Boris, 242, 283, 371–72n
Soviet Union, 98, 102–103, 146, 203–206, 208, 218, 236–39; cold war and, 222–30; collapse of, 333; Hungarian intervention by, 224, 227, 228, 238, 245–46; Italian politics and, 197; labor camps in, 203–204, 220, 222, 229, 243, 256, 280; World War II and, 143, 144, 168, 206; writers of, 203, 224–30
Sozzi, Gastone, 87, 114–15
Spadolini, Giovanni, 195, 236, 248
Spain, 23, 77–79, 149, 239, 241; Franco in, 166, 167; Silone’s imprisonment in, 3–4, 77, 78–79
Spanish Civil War, 8, 77, 102, 141, 150, 151, 242
Spanish Counter-Reformation, 3
Sparpaglione, Domenico, 53
Special Laws, 82
Special Tribunal for the Defense of the State, 56, 87, 254n, 257
Spectator, 121–22
Spender, Stephen, 199, 224, 225, 236, 253
Spera, Domenico, 185
speranza nell’Apocalisse, La (Quinzio), 244
Sperber, Manes, 219
Spinoza, Baruch, 275–76
Spriano, Paolo, 232, 321, 352n
spying, 221; for CIA, 11, 143, 158, 246–47, 295; Darina and, 168–71, 320; of Montana, 158; of Platone, 169; police, 80–81
Stalin, Joseph, 8, 15, 68, 92, 143, 222–29, 242, 254; death of, 223, 321; in Khrushchev’s secret speech, 224, 225, 227, 228; PSI betrayed by, 146, 147, 319; Sartre’s defense of, 237; show trials of, 102, 152, 200, 204–205, 222, 330; Silone’s alleged spying and, 307, 310, 321; terror and purges of, 99, 125, 188, 204, 206, 208, 224, 227–29, 254, 280
Stalin (Souvarine), 371–72n
Stalingrad, Battle of, 161
Stalinism, 14, 133, 200, 206, 240
Stalin Peace Prize, 238, 239
Stampa, La, 85, 206–207
standard of living, 32, 34
State Department, U.S., 202, 217, 313
Stato Operaio, Lo, 124, 183
Steinbeck, John, 215
Stendhal, 96, 241
Stevenson, Adlai, 11
Stille, Alexander, 323–24
Stille, Ugo, 220
Storia del partito comunista italiano (Spriano), 352n
Story of a Humble Christian, The (Silone), 9, 265–70, 272, 340, 376n; ending of, 268; epilogue to, 269; Pope Celestine V in, 4, 27, 266–69
storytelling, 32, 82–84, 134, 169–70; culinary arts compared with, 258; weaving compared with, 115
Strada, La (film), 251
Stranger, The (Camus), 218, 238
Strasser, Dr. Ch., 105
Streicher, Julius, 166
strikes, 159, 229, 237
Sturla, 80–81
Stürmer, Der, 166
suffering, 8, 28–29, 49, 215, 219, 249, 271, 341, 378n; of cafoni, xvi, 36, 37, 113; of Christ, 4, 7, 113; earthquake and, 44; of Jews, 280; in labor camps, 203–204; universality of, 216
suicide, 88, 222, 223; in Camus’s works, 238; of Pavese, 200, 273; of Sha
tzkin, 179, 254; in Silone’s novels, 114, 230; Silone’s tendency toward, 9, 15, 27, 52, 110, 149, 272–75, 292, 362n; of Sozzi, 114–15
“Sulla dignitá dell’intelligenza e l’indegnità degli intellettuali” (On the dignity of intelligence and the unworthiness of intellectuals) (Silone), 236
Sulmona, 27, 62, 210
“Superare l’antifascismo” (Overcoming [or, Going beyond] Antifascism)(Silone), 188
surrealism, 257
Sutro, Nettie, 117, 118, 122
Swiss Communist Party, 95, 99
Swiss Police for Foreigners, 143, 146, 148, 150, 151, 156; archival madness and, 154, 362n; Darina and, 171
Swiss Social Democratic Party, 99, 155
Swiss Socialist Party, 155, 173, 196
Switzerland, 88; borders sealed in, 156; Italian refugees in, 100, 110–11, 140, 147, 154; Italy’s relations with, 143; neutrality of, 117, 143; Silone’s exile in, 12, 14, 15, 27, 53, 86, 93, 94, 104–62, 168–72, 206, 209, 233, 234, 241, 280, 285, 311, 314–20, 340; Silone’s turning point in, 111; Silone’s writing set in, 22, 135, 230, 261; Togliatti’s trip to, 206
symbolism, 257
Tambroni, Ferdinando, 309
Tamburrano, Giuseppe, 308, 324–25, 327
Tangentopoli bribery scandal, 211, 306
Taormina, 318
Tarchiani, Alberto, 38
Tasca, Angelo, 93–95, 103, 180, 358n; death of, 94, 95; Silone’s correspondence with, 95, 97, 101, 113, 117, 124, 355n; Vichy collaboration of, 94, 185
Taverna del Trentuno, 67
Teatro del Popolo project, 198
television stations, see RAI
Témoins, 282
Tempo, Il, 325
Tempo Presente, 4, 218, 230, 239–49, 275–76, 331; closing of, 11, 248; division of Berlin in, 253; funding for, 10–11, 236, 243; Hungarian crisis and, 226, 245–46; Sartre in, 227; Togliatti’s death in, 231–32; U.S. critiqued in, 248
Temps modernes, Les, 237
Terracini, Umberto, 69, 70, 94, 309
terra trema, La (film), 240–41
terre inhumaine, La (Czapski), 226
theater, 38, 176–77, 198, 214; see also And He Hid Himself; Story of a Humble Christian, The
Third Front (Il Terzo Fronte), 144, 147
“Third Front, The” (Silone), 143–46
Third International, 67, 69–72; second congress of, 69
Thorez, Maurice, 95
Ticino, 22, 135, 183, 230, 261
Tipografia Artigianelli, 84
Tipografia Cooperativa, 118
Tipografia Emiliana, 57
Tipografia Vaticana, 57
Togliatti, Palmiro, 68, 94–97, 186, 196, 206–207, 229, 237, 254, 355n; anti-Stalinism and, 223; assassination attempt against, 198; death of, 231–32; efforts to bring Silone back to PCI by, 102; Italian intellectuals criticized by, 199–200; made minister of justice, 187; in Moscow, 91–92; Silone’s alleged spying and, 309–10, 321, 328; Silone’s expulsion from PCI and, 95–97, 206; Silone’s public declaration request from, 95–96; Vittorini’s resignation and, 206–207
Toller, Ernst, 94, 106, 117, 273
Tolstoy, Leo, 115, 233, 241, 255, 283, 321, 338
Torlonia, Prince, 26, 32–33, 35–36, 185
Torlonia family, land of, 33, 59, 185
Tortona, 48, 54–55
Toscanini, Arturo, 139, 157
totalitarianism, 16, 105, 203, 204, 205, 221, 261, 340; fascism and, 125, 145, 152, 240; idolatry and, 217–18; nihilism of, 9
Toulouse, 132, 183
Tranquilli, Cairoli, 33
Tranquilli, Domenico, 33
Tranquilli, Elvira, 33
Tranquilli, Maria (first), 33
Tranquilli, Maria (second), 33
Tranquilli, Marianna Delli Quadri, 30–33, 101, 175; childbirths of, 33; children weaned by, 30; death of, 15, 21, 41, 42, 47, 49, 55, 76, 81, 272, 284; on judges, 83–84; as weaver, 31, 32, 33, 271
Tranquilli, Paolo, 26, 30–33; death of, 15, 32, 41, 49, 272; emigration of, 32; nonconformism of, 31, 32
Tranquilli, Pomponio, 56–57, 86–87; Silone’s correspondence with, 90, 354n
Tranquilli, Romolo, 53–57, 76, 179, 210; arrest of, 57, 84–85, 87, 105, 114, 256, 299, 300, 305, 306, 307, 313, 327, 329; birth of, 33; confession of, 90, 354n; in earthquake, 41, 42, 54, 55, 321; education of, 43, 48, 53–56, 256; Fontamara dedication to, 91, 113, 180; imprisonment, torture, and death of, 15, 47, 85–91, 114, 121, 185, 193, 219, 256–57, 272, 284, 300, 309, 310, 313, 327, 354n; Orione and, 47, 48, 54–57, 84, 85–86, 89, 90, 354n; Orione’s correspondence with, 56, 85–86; Orione’s portrait of, 55; in Rome, 43, 48; Silone’s alleged spying for Fascist police and, 299, 300, 305, 306, 307, 327; Silone’s correspondence with, 42–43, 54, 85, 89, 90, 91, 105, 219, 310, 354n; weaning of, 30
Tranquilli, Secondino, see Silone, Ignazio
Trentin, Silvio, 183
Tresca, Carlo, 102
Tresso, Pietro (Blasco), 81–82, 92–93, 96
Treves, Claudio, 72
Trieste, 75, 76–77
Triple Alliance, 60
Tripoli, 31, 157
Trostel, Käthe, 99
Trostel, Willy, 98–99
Trotsky, Leon, 72, 121, 200–201, 255, 308; Stalin’s expulsion of, 91–92, 200, 308
Trotsky, Natalia Sedova, 200–201
Trotskyists, 229
truth, 152, 179, 188, 200, 223, 228, 283, 338, 339; antifascism and, 152; peasants and, 84, 249
Tuareg, 266
tuberculosis, 33–34, 89, 90, 155, 272, 281
Tucci, Niccolò, 130
Tucholsky, Kurt, 106, 107, 273
Turati, Filippo, 69, 70, 72
Turgenev, Ivan, 273
Turin, 68, 70, 80; factory councils in, 72, 94
Turner, Bernard, 280
Twentieth Party Congress, Soviet, 224–28, 238
Ulysses (Joyce), 166
“Umanesimo tragico di Silone” (Santostefano’s interview with Silone), 189
Umberto I, King of Italy, 63
Umberto II, King of Italy, 191
Ungaretti, Giuseppe, 225
Unione Giovanile Socialista (USR), 67, 68, 70
Unione Socialista Romana, 61, 65
Union Internationale des Écrivains Révolutionnaires, 101
Union of Soviet Writers, 246, 280
Unità, L’, 185–86, 207–208, 325, 380n
United Nations, 159, 252
United States, 251; anti-Fascist support in, 157–58; communism in, 102; Italian Americans in, 157, 212, 214–17; Italian politics and, 197; Silone denied visa by, 11, 218, 248; Silone offered visa by, 217–18; Silone’s alleged spying and, 322–24, 326; Silone’s views on, 212–21; Silone’s visits to, 217–18, 220–21; Silone’s works in, 118, 120, 129–30, 139, 158, 213–17, 347n; in Silone’s writing, 127, 213–14; Tempo Presente critique of, 248
Universum Bücherei guild, 118
Uruguay, 184
Uscita di sicurezza, see Emergency Exit
Usellini, Guglielmo, 184
USR, see Unione Giovanile Socialista
utopias, utopianism, 8, 9, 270, 292
Vacirca, Vincenzo, 69–70
Valangin, Aline, 290; Fontamara and, 116, 117; memoirs of, 108–109; portrait of, 106–107; Silone’s affair with, 106–10, 383n; Silone’s correspondence with, 107–10
Valenti, Girolamo, 215
Vallecchi, 232
Vatican, 120, 187, 235; Index of Forbidden Books of, 100; see also Second Vatican Council
Vaucresson, 81
Vazyk, Adam, 208
Veblen, Thorstein, 262
Vecchi, Eros, 80
Velletri, 55, 56
Venice, 57, 84, 224–25, 227; film festival in, 251; PEN Club in, 236–37; Super Campiello prize ceremony in, 269–70
Ventimiglia, 79
Venturi, Lionello, 205
Vercours (French writer), 228
Verga, Giovanni, 65, 119, 240, 255
Via, La, 205
“V
iaggio a Parigi” (Silone), 19, 135, 175
Viaggio a Parigi (Silone), 261
Viareggio Prize, 12, 232, 233
via Tasso prison, 173
Vichy regime, 94, 185
Vico, Giambattista, 5
Vienna, 260
Vigorelli, Giancarlo, 233
Visconti, Luchino, 241, 251, 260
Vittorini, Elio, 141, 205, 206–207, 237
Vittorio Emanuele III, King of Italy, 33, 47, 159, 187; abdication of, 191; assassination attempt against, 84, 86; Mussolini deposed by, 160, 178
Vizzini, Calogero, 252
Volontà, 8
Vorkuta, 229
Vujovic, Voja, 222
Waiting for Godot (Beckett), 7
“Was ist Fascismus? Versuch einer Definition” (Silone), 125
Wassermann, Jakob, 94, 116, 117
weaving, 31, 32, 33; storytelling compared with, 115, 271
Weil, Selma, 259, 283
Weil, Simone, 164, 179, 255, 281–83, 332; Pétrement’s biography of, 283; Severina and, 4–5, 259, 282–83; as turning point for Silone, 281
Weinreich, Max, 376n
Weissberg, Alexander, 226, 242
Welles, Sumner, 217
Whitman, Walt, 212