Anonymous Soldiers

by Bruce Hoffman

  Moyne, Lord (Walter Edward Guinness) (1880–1944). Member, Parliament, 1907–31; secretary of state for the colonies and leader of the House of Lords, 1941–42; deputy minister of state, Middle East, 1942–44; minister of state in the Middle East, 1942–44.

  Ormsby-Gore, William (1885–1964). Member, Parliament, 1910–38; colonial secretary, 1936–38.

  Paget, General Sir Bernard Charles Tolver (1887–1961). Commander in chief, Middle East Command (later renamed Middle East Land Forces), Cairo, 1944–46.

  Paglin, Amichai (1922–78). Member, Irgun Zvai Le’umi, 1939–48; chief of operations, Irgun Zvai Le’umi, 1946–48; adviser to the prime minister on counterterrorism, 1977–78.

  Qassam, Sheikh ’Izz al-Din Abd al-Qadir al- (1870s/1880s?–1935). Imam, al-Istiqlal Mosque, Haifa, 1921–35; marriage registrar, northern Palestine, 1929–35; rebel, 1930–35.

  Raziel, David (1910–41). Member, Irgun Zvai Le’umi, 1931–41; commander of Jerusalem district, Irgun Zvai Le’umi, 1937; commander in chief, Irgun Zvai Le’umi, 1938–41.

  Rymer-Jones, Brigadier John Murray (1897–1993). Inspector general, Palestine Police Force, 1943–46; commander, Scotland Yard, 1946–50.

  Samuel, Sir Herbert Louis (1870–1963). Member, Parliament, 1902–18, 1929–35; Liberal Party leader, 1931–35; president, Local Government Board, 1914–15; home secretary, 1916, 1931–32; high commissioner, Palestine, 1920–21; high commissioner, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 1921–25.

  Sandström, Emil (1886–1962). Swedish delegate to, and chairman of, the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP), 1947.

  Saunders, Major Alan (1886–1964). Inspector general, Palestine Police Force, 1937–43.

  Scheib (Eldad), Israel (1910–96). Member, Lohamei Herut Yisrael, 1942–48; member, Lohamei Herut Yisrael high command, 1943–48.

  Shaw, Sir John Valentine Wistar (1894–1982). Assistant secretary, Palestine government, 1935–38; senior assistant secretary, Palestine government, 1938; departmental chief secretary, Palestine government, 1939; colonial secretary, Cyprus, 1940–43; chief secretary, Palestine government, 1943–46.

  Shertok (Sharett), Moshe (1894–1965). Head, Jewish Agency political department, 1933–48; member, Knesset, 1949–65; foreign minister, Israel, 1948–56; prime minister, Israel, 1954–55.

  Shuckburgh, Sir John Evelyn (1877–1953). Deputy undersecretary of state, Colonial Office, 1931–42.

  Smart, Sir Walter Alexander (1883–1962). Oriental secretary (later counselor), British embassy, Cairo, 1926–45; oriental minister, British embassy, Cairo, 1945.

  Smith, Trafford (1912–75). Assistant secretary, Colonial Office, 1945–48.

  Stanley, Sir Oliver Frederick George (1896–1950). Member, Parliament, 1924–50; secretary of state for the colonies, 1942–45.

  Stern, Abraham (1907–42). Member, Irgun Zvai Le’umi, 1931–40; founder and leader, Irgun Zvai Le’umi B’Yisrael (later renamed the Lohamei Herut Yisrael), 1940–42.

  Storrs, Sir Ronald (1881–1955). Military governor, Jerusalem, 1917–20; governor, Jerusalem, 1920–26.

  Tegart, Sir Charles Augustus (1881–1946). Indian Police Service, 1901–31; adviser on police, Palestine, 1938.

  Wauchope, Lieutenant General Sir Arthur Grenfell (1874–1947). High commissioner, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 1931–38.

  Wavell, Field Marshal Sir Archibald Percival (1883–1950). General officer commanding British forces, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 1937–38; commander in chief, Middle East Command, Cairo, 1939–41.

  Weizmann, Chaim Azriel (1874–1952). President, British Zionist Federation, 1917–20; president, World Zionist Organization, 1920–31, 1935–46; president of Israel, 1949–52.

  Wickham, Sir Charles (1879–1971). Inspector general, Royal Ulster Constabulary, 1922–45; director, British Police Mission to Greece, 1945–52.

  Yezernitzky (Jeziernicky, later Shamir), Yitzhak (1915–2012). Member, Irgun Zvai Le’umi, 1937–40; member, Irgun Zvai Le’umi B’Yisrael, 1940–43; member of high command and director of operations, Lohamei Herut Yisrael, 1943–46, 1947–48; Mossad operative, 1955–65; member, Knesset, 1974–96; Speaker, Knesset, 1977–80; minister of foreign affairs, Israel, 1980–86; prime minister, Israel, 1983–84, 1986–92.

  Notes

  PREFACE

  1. “PM: Terrorists ‘Will Never Win,’ ” Tony Blair Archive, http://www.number10.gov.uk/output/Page7896.asp; “Prime Minister’s Address to the Nation on Terrorist Attacks on the United States, Embassy of India: Prime Minister, 14 September 2001,” http://www.indianembassy.org/special/cabinet/Primeminister/pm_september_14_2001.htm; “David Cameron on 7/7,” ConservativeHome’s ToryDiary, July 7, 2006, http://conservativehome.blogs.com/torydiary/2006/07/david_cameron_o.html; Hoffman (2006), 1–42.

  2. Time, March 7, 1977; New York Times, Nov. 8, 1983; “Speech to Conservative Party Conference,” Margaret Thatcher Foundation, Oct. 12, 1984, http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.as?docid=105763; Ha’aretz, June 30, 2008.

  3. Quoted in Abrahms (2006), 75, 45, 76; Carr (2002), 11.

  4. Fanon (1990); Hacker (1976), 10.

  5. Reich (1992), 7; Hoffman (2003), 40–47; Hoffman and McCormick (2004), 243–81; Kydd and Walter (2006), 49–80; Lake (2002), 15–29; Pape (2003), 343–61; Pape (2005); Crenshaw (1981), 385.

  6. Hyams (1974), 9.

  7. Christopher Clark (2012), 367–403; Oren (2002), xiii, 1–2.

  8. Andrew (1986), xvi.

  CHAPTER 1: TO DIE FOR OUR NATION

  1. Daily Telegraph, May 14, 1948; Manchester Guardian, New York Times, and Washington Post, May 15, 1948; Palestine Post, May 16, 1948; Collins and Lapierre (1973), xx; Golani (2009), 210; Kurzman (1970), 237.

  2. “Final Message to Palestine” (n.d.), box 6, file 1, Cunningham Papers; Sherman (1997), 243; Collins and Lapierre (1973), xx; “A History of Government House” (1983), 1; Keith-Roach (1994), 102–3; Goldhill (2008), 298; Kroyanker (1994), 148; Segev (2000), 342; Shepherd (1999), 1–2; Washington Post, May 15, 1948.

  3. Daily Telegraph, May 14, 1948; Manchester Guardian, New York Times, Washington Post, and Scotsman, May 15, 1948; Collins and Lapierre (1973), xx, 395; Kurzman (1970), 237; Sherman (1997), 243; “Final Message to Palestine.”

  4. Hughes (2004), 6.

  5. Ibid., 10–11; Fromkin (2001), 308.

  6. Hughes (2004), 8–9; Fromkin (2001), 308–9; Shepherd (1999), 23; Wavell (1941), 232.

  7. Hughes (2004), 11, 92–93, 105–6; author’s possession; Independent, Dec. 10, 1992; Monroe (1963); Krämer (2008), 152; Keith-Roach (1944), 69; Wasserstein (1978), 1.

  8. Fromkin (2001), 312; Independent, Dec. 10, 1992; Wavell (1941), 230; Hughes (2004), 107; Segev (2000), 5.

  9. Morris (2001), 77; Hughes (2004), 7.

  10. Krämer (2008), 155–56; Segev (2000), 22; Pappe (2004), 73; Wasserstein (1978), 1–2; Wasserstein (2003), 9–10.

  11. Wasserstein (1978), 18.

  12. Krämer (2008), 157; Stein (1961), frontispiece; Morris (2001), 73; Fromkin (2001), 269, 298.

  13. Fromkin (2001), 297; Morris (2001), 76.

  14. Antonius (1971), 164–83; Kedourie (1976), 3–4; Hurewitz (1976), 19–20; Morris (2008); Hadawi (1967), 59; Krämer (2008), 158; Segev (2000), 6.

  15. Krämer (2008), 157; Sherman (1997), 42; Storrs (1939), 312; Fromkin (2001), 445; Pappe (2004), 72, 269; Morris (2001), 89; Wasserstein (1978), 24, 26–27, 58–59, 244.

  16. Morris (2008), 4, 7–8; Morris (2001), 25, 40, 47–49, 52–54; Borisov (1947), 9; Dinur (1954–72), 1:113–312; Luttwak and Horowitz (1975), 6; OSS R&A Report 1014, Sept. 30, 1943, RG 226 097.3 21092, NARA; Pedahzur and Perliger (2009), 10; Schiff (1974), 2–4.

  17. Perlmutter (1969), 7; Segev (2000), 130; Wasserstein (1978), 63.

  18. Schechtman (1956), 293; Mitchell Cohen (1987), 142–43; Lipsky (1956), 99–105; Shlaim (1999), 11; Laqueur (1976), 339.

  19. Laqueur (1976), 339–42; Fromkin (2001), 277–78; Kister (2000), 7–9; Schechtman (1956), 207–30;
Pedahzur and Perliger (2009), 11; Shlaim (1999), 11; Wasserstein (1978), 44.

  20. Schechtman (1956), 322–23; Segev (2000), 123–25; Laqueur (1976), 241, 279; Morris (2008), 11; Wasserstein (1978), 63.

  21. Schechtman (1956), 324; Dinur (1954–72), 1:517–20; Fromkin (2001), 446–47; Morris (2008), 11.

  22. Storrs (1939), 342; La Guardia (2007), 60–61; Military Intelligence Division, report, Sept. 6, 1943, RG 65, 867N.20/211, NARA.

  23. Reich (1996), 578–79; Rolef (1993), 318; Morris (2001), 95; Schechtman (1956), 295.

  24. OSS R&A Report 1014; Wasserstein (1978), 65; Morris (2001), 95; Schechtman (1956), 327; Meinertzhagen (1959), 82; Segev (2000), 128; Newton (1948), 133–35; Krämer (2008), 208–10.

  25. Keith-Roach (1994), 71; Storrs (1939), 342.

  26. OSS Report 1014; Knight (2008), 215; Morris (2001), 95–96; Wasserstein (1978), 64; Meinertzhagen (1959), 79–80; Newton (1948), 133; Segev (2000), 132–33.

  27. Schechtman (1956), 338. For a detailed account of the arrest and trial, see 329–37; Fromkin (2001), 446; Morris (2001), 96; Segev (2000), 139; Wasserstein (1978), 65–69; Wasserstein (1992), 244; Schechtman (1956), 329–38; Keith-Roach (1994), 71–72; Mattar (1988), 16–18; Morris (2001), 97.

  28. Bauer (1966), 182; Dinur (1954–72), 1:154.

  29. Dinur (1954–72), 1:154, 667–69; Morris (2001), 99; Segev (2000), 208–20.

  30. Times, April 27, 1920; Wasserstein (1978), 71; Meinertzhagen (1959), 79–80, 84–88.

  31. Wasserstein (1978), 71–72; Wasserstein (1992), 244; Meinertzhagen (1959), 87–88.

  32. Wasserstein (1992), vii–viii, 247; Fromkin (2001), 269; Shepherd (1999), 13–14; Stein (1961), 103.

  33. Wasserstein (1992), 247; Bentwich (1991), 64; Shepherd (1999), 56; Sherman (1997), 55; Storrs (1939), 349.

  34. Hurewitz (1976), 23–24; Sherman (1997), 11, 32; Wasserstein (1992), 252; “A History of Government House” (1983); Kroyanker (1994), 147; Goren (1998), 332; “Augusta Victoria Hospital.”

  35. RIIA (1976), 39; Caplan (1982), 3; Mattar (1988), 19–21; Wasserstein (1978), 92; Keith-Roach (1994), 86; Wasserstein (2003), 13; Morris (2001), 98.

  36. Caplan (1982), 5; Wasserstein (1992), 255; Hadawi (1967), 58.

  37. Bentwich (1977), 72; Knight (2008), 218; LeVine (2005), 144–45; Schlor (1999), 39.

  38. Schlor (1999), 15; LeVine (2005), 134–36, 144, 146; Morris (2001), 45.

  39. Azaryahu (2007), 37–38; Schlor (1999), 15, 40, 54; LeVine (2005), 135, 139.

  40. Morris (2001), 101; Krämer (2008), 210.

  41. Bentwich (1991), 69, 72; Fromkin (2001), 515; Keith-Roach (1994), 86–87; Knight (2008), 220–22; Krämer (2008), 210; LeVine (2005), 110; Morris (2001), 101; Wasserstein (1978), 100–101.

  42. Wasserstein (1978), 100–102; Gilbert (1993), 11; Keith-Roach (1994), 87; Krämer (2008), 210–11; Morris (2001), 102; Wasserstein (1992), 256.

  43. Porath (1974), 129; Keith-Roach (1994), 86–87; Gilbert (2007), 73; Makovsky (2007), 113–14; Wasserstein (1992), 256; Wasserstein (1978), 102–5; Caplan (1982), 10–11.

  44. Porath (1974), 132.

  45. Keith-Roach (1994), 84; Wasserstein (1992), 266.

  46. Mattar (1988), 8–10, 25–27; Morris (2008), 6; Segev (2000), 160; Wasserstein (1978), 96–99, 143–46, 244; Porath (1974), 131.

  47. Wasserstein (1978), 109; British White Paper, June 3, 1922, Cmd. 1700; RIIA (1976), app. 3, 155–59.

  48. Fromkin (2001), 525; Gilbert (2007), 84–85; Makovsky (2007), 118–19; Wasserstein (1992), 260; Fromkin (2001), 525–26; Gilbert (2007), 84–85; Makovsky (2007), 118–19; Caplan (1982), 21–22; Krämer (2008), 213–14; Morris (2001), 103–4; RIIA (1976), 40–42; Wasserstein (1978), 118–19.

  49. Moore (1974), 71–73; RIIA (1976), 151–55.

  50. Bentwich (1932), 71; Fromkin (2001), 524; Schechtman (1956), 378–79; Meinertzhagen (1959), 106–7; Wasserstein (1978), 109; Porath (1974), 131–32.

  CHAPTER 2: THE SEEDS OF TERROR

  1. Knight (2008), 223–26; Keith-Roach (1994), 88; Sinclair (2006a), 16, 19–21; RIIA (1976), 43.

  2. Lesch (1979), 80–83; Porath (1974), 134.

  3. Bentwich (1961), 84; Keith-Roach (1994), 98; Newton (1948), 233, 235; RIIA (1976), 42–43; LeVine (2005), 109.

  4. RIIA (1976), 44; Bentwich (1961), 77, 82; Migdal (1980), 29; LeVine (2005), 85; Wasserstein (1978), 159–60.

  5. Friedman (1986), 290n14; Ben-Arieh (1986), 3, 8, 328; Diness (1993), 10; Mordechai Eliav (1997), 21, 30, 45–46; Sanders (1983), 3–4, 11–18; Moscrop (2000), 1–4; Storrs (1939), 321.

  6. Kroyanker (1994), 143–44, 146–47, 155, 157; Storrs (1939), 455–57; Keith-Roach (1994), 101; Independent, Dec. 10, 1992; Storrs (1939), 321–22.

  7. Kroyanker (1994), 143, 146, 150, 155, 157.

  8. Schlor (1999), 65, 77; LeVine (2005), 89, 100; Azaryahu (2007), 39; Storrs (1939), 443; RIIA (1976), 43.

  9. Seikaly (2002), 2–7, 47, 49, 61, 72, 74; Krämer (2008), 199–200.

  10. RIIA (1976), 43; Wasserstein (1978), 159–60; Schlor (1999), 62; Wasserstein (2003), 14; Gilbert (1993), 13; Porath (1974), 134, 254–55.

  11. Kelly (1980), 7; Porath (1974), 265–73; Mattar (1988), 33, 35–36, 49; Krämer (2008), 216–18.

  12. Keith-Roach (1994), 119.

  13. Times, Aug. 27, 1927; Keith-Roach (1994), 117–18; Krämer (2008), 225; Wasserstein (1978), 222–23; Guinn (2006), 25–28; RIIA (1976), 44; Storrs (1939), 359, 307.

  14. Storrs (1939), 359; Times, Aug. 27, 1927; Krämer (2008), 227; Porath (1974), 260–62, 266–67; Marlowe (1959), 113–14; Mattar (1988), 35, 38–40; Newton (1948), 236–37; Samuel (1929), 39–46; Wasserstein (1978), 131, 223–26; Keith-Roach (1994), 118–20; Bentwich (1961), 90; Morris (2001), 112–13.

  15. Mattar (1988), 45; Wasserstein (1978), 226–27; Keith-Roach (1994), 120.

  16. Bentwich (1961), 84; Schechtman (1961), 92, 94–95; Mattar (1988), 45; Wasserstein (1978), 227–28.

  17. Mitchell Cohen (1987), 141–43; Krämer (2008), 191; Laqueur (1976), 345; Shlaim (1999), 11–12, 16.

  18. Jabotinsky (2007), 42–43.

  19. Mitchell Cohen (1987), 141; Schechtman and Benari (1970), 1:33–35; Kister (2000), 15; Krämer (2008), 191; Laqueur (1976), 359–61; Wasserstein (1978), 229n3.

  20. Niv (1975), 1:127; Mitchell Cohen (1987), 154.

  21. Keith-Roach (1994), 122; Krämer (2008), 230; Samuel (1929), 49; Schechtman (1961), 120; Schechtman and Benari (1970), 1:256; Wasserstein (1978), 229; Mattar (1988), 46.

  22. Keith-Roach (1994), 122; Bell (1977), 1; Samuel (1929), 49–50, 58; Edward Horne (1982), 134; Mattar (1988), 46; Wasserstein (1978), 229–30.

  23. Samuel (1929), 58–61; Newton (1948), 236–38.

  24. Bentwich (1961), 91; RIIA (1976), 45; Samuel (1929), 64, 87–96, 101; Wasserstein (1978), 230–32.

  25. Keith-Roach (1994), 122–23; Krämer (2008), 231.

  26. Walter S. Shaw et al. to Lord Passfield (colonial secretary), report, March 12, 1930, NA, CO 733/177/4.

  27. Keith-Roach (1994), 123; Bentwich (1932), 185; Wasserstein (1978), 232; Samuel (1929), 101–14; Director (Department of Health), to Lord Passfield, report, Jan. 2, 1930, NA, CO 733/180/4.

  28. Horne (1982), 35, 56, 60–61, 134; Sinclair (2006a), 21–22; Wasserstein (1978), 168, 232; Keith-Roach (1994), 123; Morris (2001), 113; Shaw et al. to Passfield, report, March 12, 1930; Bentwich (1932), 186; Times, Aug. 26, 1929.

  29. Aharon Reuven Bernzweig and Breine Zuch Bernzweig to “My dear children,” letter, Sept. 2, 1929, trans. from the Yiddish by Helen G. Meyrowitz and Dr. Meyer Greenberg and published as “Hebron scroll,” Jerusalem Post, Aug. 26, 1989; Samuel (1929), 118; Segev (2000), 325–26; Times, Nov. 8, 1929.

  30. “Hebron scroll,” Jerusalem Post, Aug. 26, 1989; Times, Nov. 8, 1929.

  31. “Hebron scroll”; Times, Nov. 8, 1929; Wasserstein (1978), 234.

  32. Times, Nov. 8, 1929; “Tidyings,” A. E. Smith Coggins Ltd. (Autumn 1966), 35, DS.126, Cafferata Papers; Director (Department of Health)
, report of disturbances, Jan. 2, 1930, NA, CO 733/180/4; Samuel (1929), 120; “Hebron scroll.”

  33. “Hebron scroll”; Shaw et al. to Passfield, report, March 12, 1930; “Tidyings,” 35.

  34. J. Macqueen (senior medical officer) in Chancellor to Lord Passfield, Report on Disturbances at Motza on August 24 and Later, Jan. 2, 1930, NA, CO 733/180/4, app. Ia; Samuel (1929), 113–14, 124; Krämer (2008), 232–34; Morris (2001), 115; Segev (2000), 324; Shaw et al. to Passfield, report, March 12, 1930; Edward Horne (1982), 146–47.

  35. Shaw et al. to Passfield, report, March 12, 1930; Director (Department of Health), report of disturbances, Jan. 2, 1930; Times, Nov. 8, 1929; Samuel (1929), 132.

  36. Director (Department of Health), report of disturbances, Jan. 2, 1930; Gilbert (1993), 13; Bentwich (1961), 72.

  37. Newton (1948), 239–40; RIIA (1976), 45–46.

  38. RIIA (1976), 45–46.

  39. Newton (1948), 241; Laqueur (1976), 49; RIIA (1976), 45–46, 48n1.

  40. RIIA (1976), 49.

  41. Wasserstein (1978), 233; Shaw et al. to Passfield, report, March 12, 1930; Edward Horne (1982), 137–54; note on the Palestine Police Force, Dec. 1946, NA, CO 537/2269.

  42. Edward Horne (1982), 159–60; Sinclair (2006a), 29–31, 35n106, 190.

  43. Sinclair (2006a), 106; RIIA (1976), 50.

  44. Bowden (1977), 156; Sinclair (2006a), 190, 206; Shaw et al. to Passfield, report, March 12, 1930; COS Subcommittee, report, Nov. 1929, CAB 24/209; CP 343 (29), Nov. 28, 1929, NA, CAB 24/2-7; Edward Horne (1982), 161–63.

  45. Sinclair (2006a), 190.

  46. Morris (2001), 116; Keith-Roach (1994), 128–29; Laqueur (1976), 492–93; Segev (2000), 335–36; RIIA (1976), 50–55; Krämer (2008), 235.

  47. RIIA (1976), 45; Morris (2001), 117; Segev (2000), 329–30; Krämer (2008), 234.

  48. Porath (1974), 272; Meinertzhagen (1959), 141; Krämer (2008), 237; Mattar (1988), 50; Wasserstein (1978), 240.

  49. Shaw et al. to Passfield, report, March 12, 1930; Kurzman (1983), 174; LeVine (2005), 112.

  50. Bentwich (1961), 91; Wasserstein (1978), 229, 233; Dinur (1954–72), 2:299–404; Morris (2001), 119–20; Schechtman (1961), 442–43.