Diffusion Box Set

by Stan C. Smith

  2

  February 17, 1868

  I attribute the success of our landing at Humboldt Bay, if not my very survival, to the rather large collection of goods for trade I purchased in Singapore. Following the advice of Alfred Wallace, I had visited the Chinese bazaar bearing a list of items that would be valued by indigenous Papuans. To my delight, in the hundreds of shops there, most of these things could be purchased more cheaply than they could be purchased in England. I procured an abundance of knives, hatchets, gimlets, rolls of quality calico, balls of white cotton thread, beads, tobacco, and bottles of Java rum made from the sap of coconut palms, called arrack. With somewhat more persistence, I also managed to purchase muskets, gunpowder, and a supply of Dutch copper cents (the 100th part of a guilder), in case these could also be traded.

  As before stated, the natives of Humboldt Bay are known to be unfriendly. But I was encouraged by reports from the Hester Helena’s captain that the place had been successfully visited by the Dutch on more than one occasion, and I was determined to make my residence and do my collecting there.

  This morning the Hester Helena arrived at Humboldt Bay. It is a fine bay, with a long, narrow spit of land projecting out to the northwest, almost joining another spit projecting out to the southeast. This provides a narrow channel serving as an entrance to a well-protected bay with good anchorage for vessels. But there were no vessels to be seen when we arrived, other than a small prau. Praus are used throughout the Malay Archipelago and are recognized by having a single outrigger, which is almost as large as the main hull. This vessel was tied to a mangrove, its single sail loosely furled, and so I assumed it was owned by visiting Bugis traders.

  I stood watching anxiously at the Hester Helena’s prow as we passed between the spits of land. The main village suddenly came into my sight. Many of the houses were built standing completely in the water, upon posts, with long, crude bridges connecting them to the shore. More houses could be seen inland, also standing upon posts. All of the houses and bridges seemed to be placed with little or no regularity and were often crooked. Near the shore, but also standing in water, was a much larger structure with a domed roof rather like a boat’s hull, perhaps a council-house. Among the houses were numerous posts rising from the water or land that did not support anything. As we sailed nearer, I saw that upon each of these posts was a human skull, upside down, with the crown of the skull fastened to the top of the post. Below the skulls, each post was roughly carved in the revolting shape of a naked human figure, some of them male, some female. The general appearance of the village was somewhat alarming, and I was most grateful for the company of the lieutenant and his soldier from Tidore.

  Soon, more than a dozen Papuan men emerged from the houses carrying bows and arrows. Even from some distance I could see that many of them wore various necklaces of beads and cords, but they were very nearly in a state of nature, almost naked but for a peculiar long and brown cylinder arranged as a sheath upon the sexual organ. Each of the men wore an impressive mop of frizzly hair upon his head, as well as a beard of the same frizzly nature. Unlike the Malay lieutenant and his soldier, with their lighter skin and less prominent features, these men were obviously true Papuans, with deep brown or even black bodies. Their stature was tall, equally as tall as an average European man, and they were handsome and well-made, with the result of making them seem all the more threatening when they began shouting and shaking their bows at us.

  The captain gave the order to cast anchor at a safe distance, and I boarded the ship’s tender, along with the lieutenant and soldier from Tidore and three Dutch crewmen, with the intention of landing. This, however, provoked even more shouting and gesticulations from the natives, and some of them began nocking their arrows and bending their bows, implying that they would shoot at us if we rowed closer.

  Having anticipated such a reception, I had raided my supply of goods I had purchased for trade. I now hastily wrapped some knives and handkerchiefs in a length of calico printed with a fine floral pattern and threw the bundle to the natives. We then gave way and lay at anchor for some minutes while they inspected the gifts. We approached them again, and I threw another bundle, this one containing a bottle of arrack and some tobacco. Again, we gave way and waited. The next time we approached, they beckoned us to land the tender.

  Once we arrived on shore, they seemed to have lost all their will for hostile threats. They approached us with curiosity, some of them now seeming even timid. They inspected my clothing and took particular interest in my spectacles and boots. Four or five men tried my spectacles in succession, and they laughed with boisterous merriment, seemingly surprised that they could not see through them. One of the men wore a great deal more ornaments in his hair than the others, as well as several impressive necklaces of animal teeth alternating with black and white beads. He also wore, at the top of each arm, a wide strap of woven grass, to which were attached numerous long black feathers of some unknown bird. I assumed this man to be the village chief, and I handed him yet another bundle containing tobacco and arrack. This brought a good many smiles from the men, and soon our assemblage on the shore grew as women and other men emerged from the houses.

  The women were somewhat less handsome than the men. They were completely naked, other than wearing necklaces and earrings. But these were arranged in elegant ways, with the ends of the necklaces being attached to the earrings, and then draped in loose loops around the back of the head and fastened to a carefully knotted mound of hair. Their necklaces and earrings were composed of animal teeth, beads, and lengths of silver and copper wire. This exceedingly tasteful ornamentation greatly improved their rather barbarous appearance.

  While standing in the midst of these natives, I began to fully appreciate their savage nature. The tallest of them exceeded my own height, and upon their bodies were numerous scars and deformities apparently due to fighting, perhaps with rival tribes. Most of them carried bows, knives, or sharpened wooden spears, and they handled these with a comfortable ease, as if they had used them since childhood. Due to the height and boisterous behavior of these natives, the smaller stature and reserved, almost bashful Malay character of the lieutenant and his soldier assigned to my protection at once seemed to me to be distressingly unsatisfactory. I therefore became doubly determined to establish peaceable relations and was glad for my substantial collection of goods for trade.

  It quickly became clear that communication was going to be a problem. The lieutenant and his man did not understand the tribe’s language, nor did the three Dutch crewmen who had come ashore with us. Furthermore, they informed me that no one else on the Hester Helena would know the language. But the Papuans soon resorted to gesticulations as if they were accustomed to dealing with visitors who could not speak their language. I set about trying to explain that I wished to bring my supplies to shore and go about setting up my residence there, but as my arms grew tired from gesticulating, and the natives repeatedly shook their heads in confusion, I began to fear that this was beyond my ability to convey.

  To my great relief, two Bugis traders, who did indeed own the prau that was moored to the mangroves nearby, came to my aid. The men, who had emerged from a house wiping their eyes as if they had only just awoke, could speak Malay, the semi-barbarous language of the lieutenant from Tidore, and they also knew a little of the language of the Papuan tribe. Even I could understand some of what the Bugis men said, as I had spent significant time learning Malay aboard the screw steamer from Singapore and the Hester Helena, knowing that it was the most widely spoken language throughout the Malay Archipelago. I was not at all surprised that the Papuan tribe would have their own dialect. I understood that such striking fragmentation of language among these people was an example of their low state of civilization. Villages only a few miles distant from each other were known to speak different dialects or entirely different languages, so that communication between tribes was nearly impossible. And I had read that this barrier to communication was made worse by t
he hostile nature of some Papuan tribes, who often raided neighboring villages, murdering the men and capturing the women and children, assimilating them into their own tribe.

  The Bugis traders explained to us that they visited Humboldt Bay regularly to exchange goods for furs and Birds of Paradise, which were highly valued for their magnificent feathers and in fact were an article of commerce. They seemed incredulous of my desire to reside with the Papuans but were eager to offer to return periodically to sell me goods I might need. I took some comfort in this, knowing that the Hester Helena will not return for a month, when it will bring my assistant, Charles Newman. After that, it will not return to pick us up until three years have passed. Since Humboldt Bay is hardly known and rarely visited, and the lieutenant and his soldier are to return to Tidore by way of a Bugis trading prau, it could therefore be three years before another European vessel enters the bay.

  Notwithstanding their doubts about my plans, the Bugis men took considerable care to explain to the natives that I desired to stay with them in order to study the animals, birds, and insects of the region. This resulted in shaking of heads among the Papuans, and even laughter. But when told that I would be collecting specimens, including Birds of Paradise, the laughter stopped. They seemed suspicious of this, as if it were an intrusion upon their rights. I produced my letter of authority from the Sultan of Tidore. The Bugis traders explained what it was, but this seemed to anger the natives even more. Finally, I gave the man I assumed was the village chief the last pouch of tobacco I had brought from my supply on the ship and told the natives I was willing to pay them in goods or Dutch copper cents for any assistance they would afford me. I told them, in fact, that I was interested in employing three or four of them to assist me with building my house and with shooting and collecting specimens. This news seemed to interest them, as it was followed by a great deal of arguing among the younger men and boys and jostling of each other as if they desired to be first in line to become employed. I attempted to continue my explanation so that the matter could be resolved and I could then proceed to unloading my baggage and goods, but they had become so distressed over this that there could be no going on until a decision was made as to who would be hired to assist me. I chose three young men who appeared to be sturdy, healthy specimens. This resulted in yet another round of boisterous talk and jostling, but fortunately it was with good-natured smiles.

  And so at last my baggage and goods were brought to shore. The Hester Helena then made a hasty departure, as the captain had other business to attend to. I will admit that I watched the ship leave the bay with some consternation, as my future and my success here seemed quite uncertain.

  The Bugis traders told us they would be departing soon, and they kindly offered the house they had built near the village, which they used when they visited regularly. The lieutenant and soldier assigned to my protection immediately accepted this offer. Aboard the Hester Helena, however, I had been subjected to the most alarming snoring from one of them as they slept, so I was determined to begin constructing my own house.

  The village chief himself, whose name I learned was Penapul, took some interest in helping me select a location for my house. After some talking, which was assisted by the Bugis men, I realized that Penapul had assumed I would want to build a house over the water. However, I was disinclined to do so, having just spent so many days at sea.

  I asked why some of the houses were built over water while others were built over land. The villagers were astonished that I would not know, and they explained that this arrangement was designed to help defend the village from raiding tribes. Some tribes would attack from the water, approaching the village in canoes. In this case the women and children were moved to the houses built some distance up the side of the hill, and the raiders were fought at the shore to prevent them from landing. However, some tribes might attack from the land, in which case the women and children would be moved to the houses built over the water, and again the raiders were fought at the shore, but in this case to prevent them from entering the water.

  I also learned that defense from attacking tribes was the very reason their houses were built on posts some six to eight feet above ground or water. I had to admit that it seemed it would be much easier to kill a man whose hands were otherwise occupied with the task of climbing.

  The human skulls fastened high on posts were intended to demonstrate to raiding tribes that Penapul’s tribe was to be feared. The skulls were apparently from slain attackers. I asked if the village was raided often. Penapul laughed at this and assured me that I need not worry. Even had I been sure he correctly understood my question, I could hardly have found comfort in his answer.

  Finally I was shown several possible locations for building a house. I chose one that was on elevated ground, near a path often used by the Papuans to walk from the village to the forest, and not too far from a stream for washing and fresh water. The place was only about a hundred yards from the shore, and I planned to have a window from which I could look at the sea as I worked.

  In Tidore I had purchased a good many cadjans, waterproof mats made of interwoven pandanus palm leaves, to be used to cover my belongings to protect them from rain, and then eventually to be used as roofing material for my house. I had my new laborers move my baggage and goods to the place where I would build, and we covered them with the cadjans.

  It would take several days to build a proper house, so I attempted to get my boys to help me construct a rough shelter in which to sleep during the process. However, by this time the Bugis traders were not to be seen, and I had to resort to gesticulating and pantomiming each task that I wanted accomplished. This became wearisome and did not work to my satisfaction. Just as I was thinking of giving up, the oldest of my four workers, a boy of perhaps eighteen, named Amborn, waved for me to follow him. He took me to the house where he slept, which was actually little more than a hut. Upon entering it I saw that two smoke-dried human skulls were suspended from the eaves. Amborn pointed to a sleeping mat, which I assumed was his. I was unwilling to sleep in his bed, but I did agree to temporarily share his roof. I went to my things, fetched some blankets, and arranged them in a corner. There were two other sleeping mats in the house, and I soon discovered that Amborn shared the house with two boys about his age. When I have the capability and opportunity, I will inquire if this is a normal custom of these people.

  And so as the light of the day fades, I am preparing to spend my first night upon the shore of the great island of New Guinea. I am quite pleased with the progress made today, although I will sleep with a loaded gun beside me, as I am uncertain of the natives’ intentions.

  3

  February 22, 1868

  Ants and mosquitoes plagued me terribly during that first night, after which I fashioned a rough wooden bedstead and applied a lavish layer of palm oil to its legs to stop the ants from climbing up to roam at will over every inch of my body. I also located my mosquito curtain in my stores and affixed it above my temporary bed. This allowed me to sleep in much more comfort, although the bites on my face, ankles, and wrists from the first night resulted in ceaseless irritation for several days.

  For four days I was occupied from sunrise to dark with constructing my house. Notwithstanding the assistance I got from my boys and the two men from Tidore, several confounding complications obstructed the process. First, the Bugis traders had sailed away in their prau on the very morning I began construction, and I was left to whatever communication efforts I could muster on my own in conveying my needs to my three Papuan helpers. This meant I had to energetically pantomime every small task I wanted them to carry out.

  Second, the villagers could scarcely believe that I desired to build my house with the floor just above the ground. They seemed to think this arrangement would certainly result in my being murdered by a raiding tribe, and I soon concluded that I could not convince them otherwise. Hence we began construction by digging holes and embedding poles tall enough to support a floor that was
eight feet high and walls that were another eight feet beyond that. The result of this was that every minor building task required us to carefully position ladders and supports in such a way that we could safely work without falling.

  Procuring suitable building materials was the third hindrance. I had initially assumed I would collect sturdy corner poles and bamboo from the forest near the village, and I had brought axes and choppers for that purpose. However, the villagers explained, through extensive gesticulations, that bamboo and poles had to be carried long distances, as the supply near the village had already been exhausted. At one end of the village was a large pile of materials the villagers had collected for building houses. Hence I had to pay the village chief for what I needed. I offered Dutch copper cents as payment, only to discover that the Papuans had no interest in coins. I will have to use them to purchase goods from the Bugis traders upon their return, as they are of no use to me here.

  Yet another hindrance to building my house was the apparent laziness of my Papuan laborers. Without exception, I would have to begin working each morning alone. I would then soon be joined by the two soldiers from Tidore, and the native boys would gradually arrive, apparently at whatever time they felt inclined to. They would often arrive without the choppers I had given to them specifically for the work to be done. They seemed quite content to stand about and watch my progress, not performing any tasks until I made efforts to pantomime what I wished them to do. Often, all three of them would engage in a task that could easily be done by only one or two.