Invisible Women: Exposing Data Bias in a World Designed for Men

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Invisible Women: Exposing Data Bias in a World Designed for Men Page 32

by Caroline Criado Perez

28 Vainapel, Shamir, Tenenbaum and Gilam (2015)

  29 https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/feb/01/dany-cotton-london-fire-chief-sexist-abuse-over-firefighter-sam-campaign

  30 Horvath and Sczesny (2016)

  31 Ibid.

  32 Ibid.

  33 Prewitt-Freilino, Caswell and Laakso (2012)

  34 https://www.emogi.com/insights/view/report/1145/2016-emoji-report

  35 http://www.adweek.com/digital/report-92-of-online-consumers-use-emojiinfographic/

  36 https://unicode.org/L2/L2016/16160-emoji-professions.pdf

  37 http://www.adweek.com/digital/report-92-of-online-consumers-use-emojiinfographic/

  38 http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2016/16181-gender-zwj-sequences.pdf

  39 Bradley, Adam, MacArthur, Cayley, Carpendale, Sheelagh and Hancock, Mark, ‘Gendered or Neutral? Considering the Language of HCI’, Graphics Interface Conference 2015, 3–5 June, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, http://graphicsinterface.org/wp-content/uploads/gi2015-21.pdf

  40 https://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/institutions/bias.html

  41 Naureen Durrani (2008), ‘Schooling the ‘other’: the representation of gender and national identities in Pakistani curriculum texts’, Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 38:5, 595–610

  42 Lambdin, Jennifer R., Greer, Kristen M., Jibotian, Kari Selby, Wood, Kelly Rice and Hamilton, Mykol C. (2003), ‘The Animal = Male Hypothesis: Children’s and Adults’ Beliefs About the Sex of Non-Sex-Specific Stuffed Animals’, Sex Roles, 48:11–12, 471–482

  43 http://www.br-online.de/jugend/izi/deutsch/forschung/gender/IZI_Guidelines_WEB.pdf

  44 http://seejane.org/wp-content/uploads/key-findings-gender-roles-2013.pdf

  45 http://wmc.3cdn.net/dcdb0bcb4b0283f501_mlbres23x.pdf

  46 http://www.news.com.au/finance/money/australia-a-world-leader-in-female-representation-on-banknotes/news-story/3cf7c3b5ed3838075d571a64c7fcdff6

  47 http://cdn.agilitycms.com/who-makes-the-news/Imported/reports_2015/highlights/highlights_en.pdf

  48 Silvina Bongiovanni (2014), “No se preocupe la señora marquesa’: A study of gender bias in example sentences in the RAE grammar textbook’, IULC Working Papers, 14:1 https://www.indiana.edu/~iulcwp/wp/article/viewFile/14–05/146

  49 Clark, Roger, Allard, Jeffrey and Mahoney, Timothy (2004) ‘How Much of the Sky? Women in American High School History Textbooks from the 1960s, 1980s and 1990s’, Social Education, 68:1, 57–62

  50 Amy L. Atchison (2017), ‘Where Are the Women? An Analysis of Gender Mainstreaming in Introductory Political Science Textbooks’, Journal of Political Science Education, 13:2, 185–199

  51 Iveta Silova (2016), ‘Gender Analysis of Armenian School Curriculum and Textbooks Policy Brief’, PhD (June 2016), Arizona State University, https://openknowledge.world-bank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/24948/Gender0analysi0ooks000policy0brief.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y; Chiponda, Annie F and Wassermann, Johann (2016), ‘The depiction of women in the verbal text of a junior secondary Malawian history textbook – an analysis’, Yesterday & Today, 16, 40–59; https://ei-ie.org/en/woe_home-page/woe_detail/15405/curriculum-textbooks-and-gender-stereotypes-the-case-of-pakistan; Durrani (2008); Ullah, Hazir and Skelton, Christine (2013), ‘Gender representation in the public sector schools textbooks of Pakistan’, Educational Studies 39:2; 2006, 2007, 2009 and 2010 studies cit. Chiponda, Annie F and Wasser-mann, Johann (2016)

  52 http://www.siliconera.com/2016/12/02/metroid-developers-discuss-decided-make-samus-aran-woman-new-interview/

  53 http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/12/15/gaming-and-gamers/

  54 http://wmc.3cdn.net/dcdb0bcb4b0283f501_mlbres23x.pdf

  55 https://feministfrequency.com/2015/06/22/gender-breakdown-of-games-showcased-at-e3-2015/

  56 http://www.kotaku.co.uk/2015/07/15/fifas-struggle-to-include-women-reveals-a-lot-about-gamings-problems-with-diversity

  57 https://feministfrequency.com/2016/06/17/gender-breakdown-of-games-showcased-at-e3-2016/

  58 http://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/03/nyregion/campus-life-georgetown-white-male-writers-is-the-title-of-english-112.html

  59 https://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/sep/05/suffragette-review-historical-drama-tub-thumps-hard-despite-having-your-vote

  60 https://ai2-s2-pdfs.s3.amazonaws.com/05e1/0638aab94ca0d46ddde8083ff69859a0401e.pdf

  61 https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/womens-blog/2016/aug/17/normal-society-means-male-andy-murray-venus-serena-williams?CMP=fb_gu

  62 https://www.ussoccer.com/stories/2016/08/05/19/54/160805-wnt-a-history-of-the-usa-at-the-olympic-games

  63 http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/news/thor-as-woman-marvel-reveals-new-incarnation-of-superhero-in-comic-series-9608661.html

  64 https://www.wired.com/2015/10/hugo-awards-controversy/

  65 http://www.mamamia.com.au/star-wars-movie-features-a-female-lead.,; http://screencrush.com/rogue-one-female-lead-angry-fans/

  66 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/07/21/former-doctor-peter-davison-says-female-choice-role-means-loss/

  67 http://uk.businessinsider.com/doctor-who-first-woman-jodie-whittaker-sexist-reactions-2017–7

  68 https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/nov/25/readers-prefer-authors-own-sex-goodreads-survey

  69 https://kotaku.com/ubisoft-cut-plans-for-female-assassins-in-unity-1589278349

  70 http://www.kotaku.co.uk/2014/06/16/whole-assassins-creed-thing

  71 For more, see Anna Beer (2016): Sounds and Sweet Airs: The Forgotten Women of Classical Music, London

  72 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-39191514

  73 https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/sep/18/battle-prejudice-warrior-women-ancient-amazons

  74 https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/feb/01/caroline-louisa-daly-art-men-attribution

  75 https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/13/130519-women-scientists-overlooked-dna-history-science/

  76 http://www.newn.cam.ac.uk/about/history/biographies/

  77 Beer (2016).

  78 Despite being lauded as a child prodigy, Fanny Hensel was informed by her father that ‘Music will perhaps become his [her brother, Felix Mendelssohn] career, whilst for you it can and must only be an ornament.’

  79 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womens-life/9790633/Will-Goves-posh-white-blokes-history-curriculum-ignore-women.html

  80 www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationopinion/9973999/Sorry-NUTGoves-history-reforms-are-no-pub-quiz.html

  81 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/5077505/History-has-been-feminised-says-David-Starkey-as-he-launches-Henry-VIII-series.html

  82 https://teachingwomenshistory.com/teaching-resources/medieval-women/

  83 https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/20/opinion/sunday/the-end-of-identity-liberalism.html?_r=0

  84 http://www.wbur.org/politicker/2016/11/21/bernie-sanders-berklee

  85 http://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/307014-sanders-dems-must-move-beyond-identity-politics

  86 http://www.theaustralian.com.au/opinion/columnists/paul-kelly/donald-trumps-election-a-rejection-of-identity-politics/news-story/147b11c08b64702d3f9be1821416cb72

  87 https://twitter.com/RichardBurgon/status/822417591713075201

  88 https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/dec/01/blame-trump-brexit-identity-liberalism

  89 https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/naics4_212100.htm#00–0000

  90 https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes372012.htm

  91 Bourdieu, Pierre (1972) Outline of a Theory of Practice, Nice, Richard trans. (1977), Cambridge

  92 http://theconversation.com/donald-trump-and-the-rise-of-white-identity-in-politics-67037

  93 http://www.vox.com/2016/11/1/13480416/trump-supporters-sexism

  Chapter 1

  1 https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/28542/120500.pdf?sequence=6

  2 http://planphilly.com/articles/2015/01/26/septa-has-largest-percentage-of-female-riders-64-among-large-transit-agencies?utm_content=buffer97258&utm_medium=so
cial&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer

  3 Ceccato, Vania (2017), ‘Women’s victimisation and safety in transit environments’, Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 19:3–4, 163–7

  4 http://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/archives/ebs/ebs_422a_en.pdf; World Bank (2007), Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable Module 7a Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

  5 http://www.wnyc.org/story/283137-census-data-show-public-transit-gender-gap/

  6 Ceccato (2017)

  7 http://content.tfl.gov.uk/travel-in-london-understanding-our-diverse-communities.pdf 2015

  8 http://content.tfl.gov.uk/gender-equality-scheme-2007–2010.pdf

  9 Sánchez de Madariaga, Inés, ‘Mobility of Care: Introducing New Concepts in Urban Transport’, in Roberts, Marion and Sánchez de Madariaga, Inés (eds.) (2013), Fair Shared Cities: The Impact of Gender Planning in Europe, Farnham

  10 http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/leru-paper-gendered-research-and-innovation.pdf

  11 http://ssmon.chb.kth.se/volumes/vol16/5_Rolfsman_Bylund.pdf 2012

  12 https://lucris.lub.lu.se/ws/files/6151586/2295991.pdf

  13 http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/leru-paper-gendered-research-andinnovation.pdf

  14 www.chicksontheright.com/feminist-snow-plowing-disrupts-traffic-and-normal-life-for-people-in-sweden/; https://heatst.com/world/feminist-snow-plowing-system-brings-stockholm-to-a-standstill/

  15 https://heatst.com/world/feminist-snow-plowing-system-brings-stockholm-to-a-standstill/

  16 http://www.dn.se/arkiv/stockholm/jamstalld-snorojning-blev-ett-fiasko-iovadret/

  17 http://thecityfix.com/blog/brasilia-brazil-women-bus-stop-night-safety-sexual-assault-luisa-zottis/

  18 http://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/index.cfm/ResultDoc/download/DocumentKy/61244

  19 Sánchez de Madariaga (2013)

  20 https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/uk/2017/07/unless-living-standards-improve-theresa-mays-cameron-tribute-act-will-continue

  21 https://www.unison.org.uk/content/uploads/2014/06/On-line-Catalogue224222.pdf

  22 https://www.itdp.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/7aGenderUTSept300.pdf; World Bank (2007)

  23 Review of World Bank infrastructure projects 1995–2009 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/Resources/244362–1265299949041/6766328–1270752196897/Gender_Infrastructure2.pdf

  24 Sánchez de Madariaga (2013); Tran, Hoai Anh and Schlyter, Ann (2010), ‘Gender and class in urban transport: the cases of Xian and Hanoi’, Environment and Urbanization, 22:1, 139–55

  25 http://wricitieshub.org/sites/default/files/Final_Report_24082015_0.pdf; http://content.tfl.gov.uk/travel-in-london-understanding-our-diverse-communities.pdf

  26 http://content.tfl.gov.uk/travel-in-london-understanding-our-diverse-communities.pdf

  27 http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/case-studies/urban.html

  28 https://tfl.gov.uk/campaign/hopper-fare

  29 http://humantransit.org/2010/02/the-power-and-pleasure-of-grids.html

  30 http://humantransit.org/2014/08/charging-for-connections-is-insane.html

  31 https://las.depaul.edu/centers-and-institutes/chaddick-institute-for-metropolitan-development/research-and-publications/Documents/Have%20App%20Will%20Travel%20Uber%20-%20CTA.pdf

  32 Ibid.

  33 http://webfoundation.org/docs/2015/10/womens-rights-online_Report.pdf

  34 http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GGGR16/WEF_Global_Gender_Gap_Report_2016.pdf

  35 http://conversableeconomist.blogspot.co.uk/2015/10/unpaid-care-work-women-and-gdp.html

  36 World Bank (2007)

  37 https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/576095/tsgb-2016-report-summaries.pdf

  38 http://wricitieshub.org/sites/default/files/Final_Report_24082015_0.pdf 2015 Bhopal

  39 http://civitas.eu/sites/default/files/civ_pol-an2_m_web.pdf

  40 https://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/TSAR_2016r.pdf

  41 Sánchez de Madariaga (2013)

  42 http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/chapter4.pdf

  43 http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2013/sdn1310.pdf (duffle 2012)

  44 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTAFRREGTOPGENDER/Resources/gender_econ_growth_ug.pdf

  45 https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/what-we-do/where-we-work/latin-america-and-caribbean/brazil

  46 http://abeiradourbanismo.blogspot.co.uk/2012/02/habitacao-empregoe-mobilidade.html

  47 https://lsecities.net/media/objects/articles/relocating-homes-and-lives-in-rios-olympic-city/en-gb/

  48 https://www.boell.de/en/2014/06/11/we-were-not-invited-party-women-and-world-cup

  49 http://www.rioonwatch.org/?p=6527

  50 https://www.lincolninst.edu/sites/default/files/pubfiles/koch_wp13jk1.pdf

  51 https://www.boell.de/en/2014/06/11/we-were-not-invited-party-women-and-world-cup

  52 https://lsecities.net/media/objects/articles/relocating-homes-and-lives-in-rios-olympic-city/en-gb/

  53 http://www.rioonwatch.org/?p=6527

  54 http://www.rioonwatch.org/?p=25015

  55 https://www.boell.de/en/2014/06/11/we-were-not-invited-party-women-and-world-cup

  56 http://www.citylab.com/commute/2013/09/how-design-city-women/6739/

  57 Ibid.

  58 http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GGGR16/WEF_Global_Gender_Gap_Report_2016.pdf

  59 Alexis Grenell (2015), ‘Sex & the Stadt: Reimagining Gender in the Built Environment’, http://www.academia.edu/10324825/Sex_and_the_Stadt_Reimagining_Gender_in_the_Built_Environment

  60 Architekturzentrum Wien (2008), Housing in Vienna: Innovative, Social, Ecological, Vienna

  61 http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007–12-25-Designingwomen_N.htm

  Chapter 2

  1 https://twitter.com/SamiraAhmedUK/status/849338626202886144

  2 https://www.barbican.org.uk/about-barbican/people

  3 Banks, Taunya Lovell (1991), ‘Toilets as a Feminist Issue: A True Story’, Berkeley Women’s Law Journal, 6:2 263–289

  4 Greed, Clara (2014), ‘Global gendered toilet provision’, in ‘More Public than Private: Toilet Adoption and Menstrual Hygiene Management II’, AAG Annual Conference, Tampa, Florida, USA, 8–12 April 2014

  5 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3749018/

  6 Greed (2014)

  7 http://www.unric.org/en/latest-un-buzz/29530-one-out-of-three-women-without-a-toilet

  8 http://womendeliver.org/2016/yale-study-examines-link-sexual-violence-access-sanitation/

  9 http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/india-has-60-4-per-cent-people-without-access-to-toilet-study/

  10 Greed (2014)

  11 Ibid.

  12 http://www.huffingtonpost.com/rose-george/open-defecation-india_b_7898834.html https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/aug/28/toilets-india-health-rural-women-safety

  13 https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/wrdsanitation0417_web_0.pdf 2017

  14 Sommer, Marni, Chandraratna, Sahani, Cavill, Sue, Mahon, Therese, and Phillips-Howard, Penelope (2016), ‘Managing menstruation in the workplace: an overlooked issue in low- and middle-income countries’, Int. J. Equity Health, 15:86

  15 https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/wrdsanitation0417_web_0.pdf 2017

  16 http://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/bombay-high-court-makes-right-to-clean-toilets-a-fundamental-right-for-women-in-india/

  17 https://www.pri.org/stories/2014-11-25/women-india-agitate-their-right-pee

  18 Ibid.

  19 http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/women-in-slums-forced-to-defecate-in-open-say-community-toilets-are-unsafe-at-night/

  20 https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/aug/28/toilets-india-health-rural-women-safety; https://womennewsnetwork.net/2012/12/19/india-women-new-delhi-slum-toilets/

  21 https://www.newsdeeply.com/womenandgirls/articles/2017/02/03/with
out-access-clean-safe-toilets-women-face-assault-illness

  22 Jadhav, A., Weitzman, A. and Smith-Greenaway, E. (2016), ‘Household sanitation facilities and women’s risk of non-partner sexual violence in India’, BMC Public Health, 16:1139

  23 https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2014/06/02/318259419/double-rape-lynching-in-india-exposes-caste-fault-lines

  24 http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-right-to-pee-bombay-high-court-gives-municipal-corporations-deadline-in-pil-on-toilets-for-women-2045476

  25 https://broadly.vice.com/en_us/article/the-women-in-india-fighting-for-the-right-to-pee

  26 http://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/mumbai/civic/BMCs-promise-forwomens-toilets-goes-down-the-drain/articleshow/50801316.cms

  27 http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0122244

  28 https://www.pri.org/stories/2014-11-25/women-india-agitate-their-right-pee

  29 https://www.newsdeeply.com/womenandgirls/articles/2017/02/03/without-access-clean-safe-toilets-women-face-assault-illness

  30 Greed (2014)

  31 http://www.phlush.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/americanrestroomcalltoactionpaper.pdf

  32 https://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/ucloo-festival-2013/2013/09/17/toilets-gender-and-urbanism/

  33 http://transweb.sjsu.edu/sites/default/files/2611-women-transportation.pdf 2009

  34 http://transweb.sjsu.edu/sites/default/files/2611-women-transportation.pdf

  35 Gardner, Natalie, Cui, Jianqiang and Coiacetto, Eddo (2017), ‘Harassment on public transport and its impacts on women’s travel behaviour’, Australian Planner, 54:1, 8–15

  36 Ibid.

  37 Ibid.

  38 http://transweb.sjsu.edu/sites/default/files/2611-women-transportation.pdf

  39 Gardner, Cui and Coiacetto (2017)

  40 Ceccato, Vania and Paz, Yuri (2017), ‘Crime in São Paulo’s metro system: sexual crimes against women’, Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 19:3–4, 211–26

  41 http://www.cbgaindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Women-safety-indelhi.pdf

  42 http://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/need-to-make-public-transport-in-delhi-women-friendly-study/story-Eq8h997zRiq8XTdIr7dQ0H.html

  43 Ceccato and Paz (2017)

  44 Gardner, Cui and Coiacetto (2017)

  45 https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-nottinghamshire-44740362

 

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