Invisible Women: Exposing Data Bias in a World Designed for Men

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Invisible Women: Exposing Data Bias in a World Designed for Men Page 35

by Caroline Criado Perez

48 https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/389575/20141218_WGCC_Findings_Paper_Final.pdf

  49 Ibid.

  50 ibid.

  51 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/dressed-to-kill-us-army-finally-designs-a-female-uniform-that-fits-2274446.html

  52 https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2015/may/14/military-pressed-to-design-line-of-women-friendly-/

  53 https://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/PPEandwomenguidance.pdf

  54 https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/voices/one-more-barrier-faced-by-women-in-science/

  55 https://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/PPEandwomenguidance.pdf

  56 https://www.wes.org.uk/sites/default/files/WES%20safety%20survey%20results%20March%202010.pdf

  57 www.prospect.org.uk/news/id/2016/June/21/Women-workers-highlight-problems-with-ill-fitting-protective-equipment

  58 https://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/2016–01299-Leaflet-booklet-Women%27s-PPE–One-Size-Does-Not-Fit-All-Version-26–09-2016%20%282%29.pdf

  59 http://nycosh.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Women-in-Construction-final-11–8-13–2.pdf

  60 http:www.prospect.org.uk/news/id/2016/June/21/Women-workers-highlight-problems-with-ill-fitting-protective-equipment

  61 https://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/PPEandwomenguidance.pdf

  62 theguardian.com/world/2016/sep/25/spain-guardia-civil-sexism-women-bulletproof-jackets?client=safari

  63 theguardian.com/world/2016/sep/25/spain-guardia-civil-sexism-women-bulletproof-jackets?client=safari

  64 https://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/PPEandwomenguidance.pdf

  Chapter 6

  1 Vogel, Sarah A. (2009), The Politics of Plastics: The Making and Unmaking of Bisphenol A ‘Safety’, American Journal of Public Health. 99:3, 559–566

  2 http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/15/AR2008041501753.html

  3 Vogel, Sarah A. (2009)

  4 Ibid.

  5 Ibid.

  6 https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/11/nyregion/nail-salon-workers-innyc-face-hazardous-chemicals.html; ‘Breast Cancer and Occupation: The Need for Action: APHA Policy Statement Number 20146, Issued November 18, 2014’, NEW SOLUTIONS: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy

  7 Vogel, Sarah A. (2009)

  8 https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/10/nyregion/at-nail-salons-in-nycmanicurists-are-underpaid-and-unprotected.html

  9 https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/10/nyregion/at-nail-salons-in-nycmanicurists-are-underpaid-and-unprotected.html

  10 https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/sep/11/slavery-report-sounds-alarm-over-vietnamese-nail-bar-workers

  11 https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/jan/05/nail-bars-modern-slavery-discount-salons-booming-exploitation

  12 https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/sep/11/slavery-report-sounds-alarm-over-vietnamese-nail-bar-workers

  13 https://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/the-gig-is-up.pdf

  14 https://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/Women_and_casualisation_0.pdf

  15 https://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/Women_8_march_EN.pdf

  16 https://www.unison.org.uk/content/uploads/2014/06/On-line-Catalogue224222.pdf

  17 https://www.unison.org.uk/content/uploads/2014/06/On-line-Catalogue224222.pdf

  18 http://survation.com/women-on-low-paid-zero-hours-contracts-survationfor-fawcett-society/

  19 https://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/the-gig-is-up.pdf

  20 http://www.ucu.org.uk/media/6882/Zero-hours-contracts-a-UCU-briefing-Mar-14/pdf/ucu_zerohoursbriefing_mar14.pdf

  21 https://www.hesa.ac.uk/files/pre-release/staff_1516_table_B.xlsx

  22 Best, Kathinka, Sinell, Anna, Heidingsfelder, Marie Lena and Schraudner, Martina (2016), ‘The gender dimension in knowledge and technology transfer – the German case’, European Journal of Innovation Management, 19:1, 2–25

  23 A. Hellum and H. Aasen (eds.) (2013), Women’s Human Rights: CEDAW in International, Regional and National Law (Studies on Human Rights Conventions) (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)

  24 https://www.oecd.org/japan/japan-improving-the-labour-market-outcomes-of-women.pdf

  25 https://krueger.princeton.edu/sites/default/files/akrueger/files/katz_krueger_cws_-_march_29_20165.pdf

  26 TUC (2017), ‘The gig is up’, https://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/thegig-is-up.pdf

  27 Rubery, Jill, Grimshaw, Damian and Figueiredo, Hugo (2005), ‘How to close the gender pay gap in Europe: towards the gender mainstreaming of pay policy’, Industrial Relations Journal, 36:3, 184–213

  28 https://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/Women_and_casualisation.pdf

  29 Ibid.

  30 Ibid.

  31 Ibid.

  32 https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/08/13/us/starbucks-workers-scheduling-hours.html

  33 Ibid.

  34 https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/es_121917_the51percent_ebook.pdf

  35 https://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/women.pdf; https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmwomeq/725/72504.htm

  36 https://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/Women_and_casualisation.pdf

  37 http://endviolence.un.org/pdf/pressmaterials/unite_the_situation_en.pdf

  38 http://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2054525/young-chinese-women-dare-say-no-workplace-sexual-harassment-says

  39 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19862867

  40 https://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/SexualHarassmentreport2016.pdf

  41 https://www.elephantinthevalley.com/

  42 Brophy, James T., Keith, Margaret M. and Hurley, Michael (2018), ‘Assaulted and Unheard: Violence Against Healthcare Staff’, NEW SOLUTIONS: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy, 27:4, 581–606

  43 Ibid.

  44 https://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/SexualHarassmentreport2016.pdf; https://qz.com/931653/indias-long-history-with-sexual-harassment-at-work-places/; http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/predators-atthe-workplace-india-inc-yet-to-commit-to-law-against-sexual-harassment/articleshow/57830600.cms; http://indianexpress.com/article/india/38-per-cent-women-say-they-faced-sexual-harassment-at-workplace-survey-4459402/; https://today.yougov.com/news/2017/04/25/nearly-third-women-have-been-sexually-harassed-work/; https://www.theguardian.com/money/2016/jul/22/sexual-harassment-at-work-roger-ailes-fox-news; https://www.elephantinthevalley.com/; https://interagencystandingcommittee.org/system/files/hwn_full_survey_results_may_2016.pdf

  45 https://www.theguardian.com/money/2016/jul/22/sexual-harassment-at-work-roger-ailes-fox-news; https://www.elephantinthevalley.com/; https://interagencystandingcommittee.org/system/files/hwn_full_survey_results_may_2016.pdf;

  46 https://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/SexualHarassmentreport2016.pdf

  47 https://hbr.org/2014/10/hacking-techs-diversity-problem; https://hbr.org/2008/06/stopping-the-exodus-of-women-in-science

  Chapter 7

  1 https://blog.oup.com/2013/06/agriculture-gender-roles-norms-society/

  2 Ibid.

  3 Sağiroğlu, İsa, Kurt, Cem, Ömürlü, İmran Kurt and Çatikkaş, Fatih (2017), ‘Does Hand Grip Strength Change With Gender? The Traditional Method vs. the Allometric Normalisation Method’, European Journal of Physical Education and Sports Science, 2:6, 84–93

  4 Leyk, D., Gorges, W., Ridder, D., Wunderlich, M., Ruther, T., Sievert, A. and Essfeld, D. (2007), ‘Hand-grip strength of young men, women and highly trained female athletes’, European Journal of Applied Physiology, 99, 415–21

  5 Lewis, D. A., Kamon, E. and Hodgson, J. L. (1986), ‘Physiological Differences Between Genders Implications for Sports Conditioning’, Sports Medicine, 3, 357–69; Rice, Valerie J. B., Sharp, Marilyn A., Tharion, William J. and Williamson, Tania L. (1996), ‘The effects of gender, team size, and a shoulder harness on a stretcher-carry task and post-carry performance. Part II. A mass-casualty simulation’, International Journal of Indust
rial Ergonomics, 18, 41–9; Miller, A. E., MacDougall, J. D., Tarnopolsky, M. A. and Sale, D. G. (1993), ‘Gender differences in strength and muscle fiber characteristic’, European Journal of Applied Physiology, 66:3, 254–62

  6 Lewis et al. (1986)

  7 Zellers, Kerith K. and Hallbeck, M. Susan (1995), ‘The Effects of Gender, Wrist and Forearm Position on Maximum Isometric Power Grasp Force, Wrist Force, and their Interactions’, Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 39:10, 543–7; Bishu, Ram R., Bronkema, Lisa A, Garcia, Dishayne, Klute, Glenn and Rajulu, Sudhakar (1994), ‘Tactility as a function of Grasp force: effects of glove, orientation, pressure, load and handle’, NASA technical paper 3474 May 1994; Puh, Urška (2010), ‘Age-related and sex-related differences in hand and pinch grip strength in adults’, International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 33:1

  8 https://www.ft.com/content/1d73695a-266b-11e6-8b18-91555f2f4fde

  9 Leyk et al. (2007)

  10 Alesina, Alberto F., Giuliano, Paola and Nunn, Nathan (2011), ‘On the Origins of Gender Roles: Women and the Plough’, Working Paper 17098, National Bureau of Economic Research (May 2011)

  11 Ibid.

  12 Gella, A. A., Tadele, Getnet (2014), ‘Gender and farming in Ethiopia: an exploration of discourses and implications for policy and research’, FAC Working Paper, Future Agricultures, 84:15

  13 http://www.fao.org/3/a-am309e.pdf; http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/news/Blogs/makingwaves/international-womens-day-2017-change/blog/58902/; https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/oct/16/world-food-day-10-myths-hunger; http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/climate_change_gender.pdf

  14 Doss, Cheryl (2011), ‘If women hold up half the sky, how much of the world’s food do they produce?’, ESA Working Paper No. 11, Agricultural Development Economics Division, FAO

  15 World Bank (2014), ‘Levelling the Field: Improving Opportunities for Women Farmers in Africa’

  16 https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/15577/wps6436.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

  17 Ibid.

  18 https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/apr/07/leaving-women-girls-out-of-development-statistics-doesnt-add-up

  19 Doss (2011)

  20 Petrics, H. et al. (2015), ‘Enhancing the potential of family farming for poverty reduction and food security through gender-sensitive rural advisory services’, UN/FAO

  21 Ibid.

  22 Ibid.

  23 Ibid.

  24 https://www.gatesfoundation.org/What-We-Do/Global-Development/Agricultural-Development/Creating-Gender-Responsive-Agricultural-Development-Programs We receive some grant proposals that do not account for gender differences and do not consider how agricultural initiatives may benefit or hinder women or men.

  25 http://data2x.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/What-Is-Wrong-with-Data-on-Women-and-Girls_November-2015_WEB_1.pdf

  26 Petrics et al. (2015)

  27 http://people.brandeis.edu/~nmenon/Draft04_Womens_Empowerment_and_Economic_Development.pdf

  28 https://docs.gatesfoundation.org/documents/gender-responsive-orientation-document.pdf

  29 Doss (2011)

  30 http://www.poverty-action.org/study/demand-nontraditional-cookstoves-bangladesh

  31 http://greenwatchbd.com/70000-improved-stoves-distributed-to-combat-indoor-pollution/

  32 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412016307358

  33 Crewe, Emma et al. (2015), ‘Building a Better Stove: The Sri Lanka Experience’, Practical Action, Sri Lanka

  34 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412016307358

  35 Ibid.

  36 Ibid.; https://www.unicef.org/health/files/health_africamalaria.pdf

  37 http://greenwatchbd.com/70000-improved-stoves-distributed-to-combat-indoor-pollution/

  38 https://www.unicef.org/environment/files/Bangladesh_Case_Study_2014.pdf

  39 http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2012/4/green-cook-stoves-improving-women-s-lives-in-ghana#sthash.IZM4RsCG.dpuf

  40 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412016307358

  41 Crewe, Emma (1997), ‘The Silent Traditions of Developing Cooks’, in R. D. Grillo and R. L. Stirrat (eds.), Discourses of Development, Oxford

  42 Ibid.

  43 http://www.gender-summit.eu/images/Reports/Gender_and_inclusive_innovation_Gender_Summit_report.pdf

  44 http://www.unwomen.org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2014/unwomen_surveyreport_advance_16oct.pdf?vs=2710

  45 Fatema, Naureen (2005), ‘The Impact of Structural Gender Differences and its Consequences on Access to Energy in Rural Bangladesh’, Asia Sustainable and Alternative Energy Program (ASTAE), Energy Wing of the World Bank Group

  46 Crewe (1997), in Grillo and Stirrat (eds.)

  47 http://www.washplus.org/sites/default/files/bangladesh-consumer_preference2013.pdf

  48 http://answers.practicalaction.org/our-resources/item/building-a-better-stove-the-sri-lanka-experience#

  49 Crewe (1997), in Grillo and Stirrat (eds.)

  50 http://www.ideasrilanka.org/PDFDownloads/Cook%20Stoves%20in%20Sri%20LAnka.pdf

  51 http://www.gender-summit.eu/images/Reports/Gender_and_inclusive_innovation_Gender_Summit_report.pdf

  52 http://www.gender-summit.eu/images/Reports/Gender_and_inclusive_innovation_Gender_Summit_report.pdf

  53 http://www.poverty-action.org/study/demand-nontraditionalcookstoves-bangladesh

  54 https://www.se4all-africa.org/fileadmin/uploads/se4all/Documents/Abidjan_workshop_2016/SE_gender_GACC.PDF

  55 https://news.yale.edu/2012/06/29/despite-efforts-change-bangladeshi-women-prefer-use-pollution-causing-cookstoves

  56 Petrics et al. (2015)

  57 http://answers.practicalaction.org/our-resources/item/building-abetter-stove-the-sri-lanka-experience#

  58 https://www.se4all-africa.org/fileadmin/uploads/se4all/Documents/Abidjan_workshop_2016/SE_gender_GACC.PDF

  59 https://www.thesolutionsjournal.com/article/how-a-simple-inexpensive-device-makes-a-three-stone-hearth-as-efficient-as-an-improved-cookstove/

  60 Parigi, Fabio, Viscio, Michele Del, Amicabile, Simone, Testi, Matteo, Rao, Sailesh, Udaykumar, H. S. (2016), ‘High efficient Mewar Angithi stove testing in rural Kenya’, 7th International Renewable Energy Congress (IREC)

  61 http://www.green.it/mewar-angithi/

  Chapter 8

  1 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5550584; http://www.who.int/gender/documents/Genderworkhealth.pdf; Boyle, Rhonda and Boyle, Robin (2009), ‘Hand Size and the Piano Keyboard. Literature Review and aSurvey of the Technical and Musical Benefits for Pianists using Reduced-Size Keyboards in North America’, 9th Australasian Piano Pedagogy Conference, Sydney; Boyle, Rhonda, Boyle, Robin and Booker, Erica (2015), ‘Pianist Hand Spans: Gender and Ethnic Differences and Implications For Piano Playing, 15th Australasian Piano Pedagogy Conference, Melbourne 2015

  2 Boyle, Boyle and Booker (2015); Boyle and Boyle (2009)

  3 Boyle, Boyle and Booker (2015)

  4 Ibid.

  5 Ibid.

  6 http://www.smallpianokeyboards.org/hand-span-data.html

  7 ‘Small hands? Try this Keyboard, You’ll Like It’, Piano & Keyboard Magazine (July/August 1998)

  8 Boyle, Boyle and Booker (2015)

  9 https://deviceatlas.com/blog/most-popular-smartphone-screen-sizes-2017

  10 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/apple/iphone/11335574/Women-more-likely-to-own-an-iPhone-than-men.html

  11 https://medium.com/technology-and-society/its-a-mans-phone-a26c6-bee1b69#.mk7sjtewi

  12 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1013702515300270

  13 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1050641108001909

  14 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1013702515300270

  15 http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0169814115300512/1-s2.0-S0169814115300512-main.pdf?_tid=4235fa34-f81e-11e6-a430-00000aab0f26&acdnat=1487672132_c2148a00
40def1129abc7acffe03e57d

  16 Ibid.

  17 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169814116300646; http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0003687011000962/1-s2.0-S0003687011000962-main.pdf?_tid=f0a12b58-f81d-11e6-af6b-00000aab0f26&acdnat=1487671995_41cfe19ea98e87fb7e3e693bdddaba6e; http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1050641108001909

  18 https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2016/7/14/12187580/keecok1-hexagon-phone-for-women

  19 https://www.theguardian.com/technology/askjack/2016/apr/21/can-speech-recognition-software-help-prevent-rsi

  20 https://makingnoiseandhearingthings.com/2016/07/12/googles-speech-recognition-has-a-gender-bias/

  21 http://blog-archive.griddynamics.com/2016/01/automatic-speech-recognition-services.html

  22 https://www.autoblog.com/2011/05/31/women-voice-command-systems/

  23 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27435949

  24 American Roentgen Ray Society (2007), ‘Voice Recognition Systems Seem To Make More Errors With Women’s Dictation’, ScienceDaily, 6 May 2007; Rodger, James A. and Pendharkar, Parag C. (2007), ‘A field study of database communication issues peculiar to users of a voice activated medical tracking application’, Decision Support Systems, 43:1 (1 February 2007), 168–80, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2006.08.005.

  25 American Roentgen Ray Society (2007)

  26 http://techland.time.com/2011/06/01/its-not-you-its-it-voice-recognition-doesnt-recognize-women/

  27 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2994697/

  28 http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/P08-1044

  29 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2790192/

  30 http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/P08-1044

  31 http://groups.inf.ed.ac.uk/ami/corpus/; http://www1.icsi.berkeley.edu/Speech/papers/gelbart-ms/numbers/; http://www.voxforge.org/

  32 http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/corpus/index.xml?ID=intro

  33 http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/docs/URG/BNCdes.html#body.1_div.1_div.5_div.1

  34 https://corpus.byu.edu/bnc/5

  35 For example: he = 633,413, she = 350,294, himself = 28,696, herself = 15,751

  36 He = 3,825,660, she = 2,002,536, himself = 140,087, herself = 70,509

  37 Chang, K., Ordonez, V., Wang, T., Yatskar, M. and Zhao, J. (2017), ‘Men Also Like Shopping: Reducing Gender Bias Amplification using Corpus-level Constraints’, CoRR, abs/1707.09457.

 

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