38 https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2015–04/uow-wac040915.php
39 Caliskan, A., Bryson, J. J. and Narayanan, A. (2017), ‘Semantics derived automatically from language corpora contain human-like biases’, Science, 356:6334, 183–6, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aal4230
40 Bolukbasi, Tolga, Chang, Kai-Wei, Zou, James, Saligrama, Venkatesh and Kalai, Adam (2016), ‘Man is to Computer Programmer as Woman is to Homemaker? Debiasing Word Embeddings’, 30th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS 2016), Barcelona, http://papers.nips.cc/paper/6228-man-is-to-computer-programmer-as-woman-is-to-homemaker-debiasing-word-embeddings.pdf
41 Chang et al. (2017)
42 https://www.wired.com/story/machines-taught-by-photos-learn-a-sexist-view-of-women?mbid=social_fb
43 https://metode.org/issues/monographs/londa-schiebinger.html
44 https://phys.org/news/2016–09-gender-bias-algorithms.html
45 https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/sep/01/how-algorithms-rule-our-working-lives
46 https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/mar/04/robots-screen-candidates-for-jobs-artificial-intelligence?CMP=twt_gu
47 https://www.techemergence.com/machine-learning-medical-diagnostics-4-current-applications/
48 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-42357257
49 Bolukbasi et al. (2016)
Chapter 9
1 https://www.bloomberg.com/amp/news/articles/2017–09-21/a-smart-breast-pump-mothers-love-it-vcs-don-t
2 Ibid.
3 https://www.newyorker.com/business/currency/why-arent-mothers-worth-anything-to-venture-capitalists/amp
4 Ibid.
5 Ibid.
6 Ibid.
7 https://hbr.org/2017/05/we-recorded-vcs-conversations-and-analyzed-how-differently-they-talk-about-female-entrepreneurs
8 https://www.newyorker.com/business/currency/why-arent-mothers-worth-anything-to-venture-capitalists/amp
9 https://www.bcg.com/publications/2018/why-women-owned-startups-are-better-bet.aspx
10 https://www.bi.edu/research/business-review/articles/2014/03/personality-for-leadership/
11 https://www.bcg.com/publications/2018/how-diverse-leadership-teams-boost-innovation.aspx
12 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-39567240
13 http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/2014/08/08/theresia-gouw-no-more-pipeline-excuses/
14 http://science.sciencemag.org/content/355/6323/389
15 http://www.theverge.com/2014/9/25/6844021/apple-promised-an-expansive-health-app-so-why-cant-i-track
16 https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/12/how-self-tracking-apps-exclude-women/383673/; http://www.theverge.com/2014/9/25/6844021/apple-promised-an-expansive-health-app-so-why-cant-i-track; http://www.techtimes.com/articles/16574/20140926/apple-healthkit-period-tracker.htm; http://nymag.com/thecut/2014/09/new-iphone-grossed-outby-our-periods.html
17 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/8930130/Apple-iPhone-search-Siri-helps-users-find-prostitutes-and-Viagra-but-not-an-abortion.html
18 https://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/03/14/hey-siri-can-i-rely-on-youin-a-crisis-not-always-a-study-finds/
19 https://medium.com/hh-design/the-world-is-designed-for-mend06640654491#.piekpq2tt
20 https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/12/how-self-tracking-apps-exclude-women/383673/
21 Lupton, Deborah (2015), ‘Quantified sex: a critical analysis of sexual and reproductive self-tracking using apps’, Culture, Health & Sexuality, 17:4
22 Nelson, M. Benjamin, Kaminsky, Leonard A., D. Dickin, Clark and Montoye, Alexander H. K. (2016), ‘Validity of Consumer-Based Physical Activity Monitors for Specific Activity Types’, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 48:8, 1619–28
23 Murakami, H, Kawakami, R., Nakae, S., Nakata, Y., Ishikawa-Takata, K., Tanaka, S. and Miyachi, M. (2016), ‘Accuracy of Wearable Devices for Estimating Total Energy Expenditure: Comparison With Metabolic Chamber and Doubly Labeled Water Method’, JAMA Internal Medicine, 176:5, 702–3
24 http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/case-studies/robots.html#tabs-2
25 Wolfson, Leslie, Whipple, Robert, Derby, Carl A., Amerman, Paula and Nashner, Lewis (1994), Gender Differences in the Balance of Healthy Elderly as Demonstrated by Dynamic Posturography, Journal of Gerontology, 49:4, 160–167; Stevens, J. A. and Sogolow, E. D. (2005), ‘Gender differences for non-fatal unintentional fall related injuries among older adults’, Injury Prevention, 11, 115–19
26 Ibid.
27 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4750302/
28 Chang, Vicky C. and Minh, T. (2015), ‘Risk Factors for Falls Among Seniors: Implications of Gender’, American Journal of Epidemiology, 181:7, 521–31
29 Yin, Hujun et al eds. (2016) Intelligent Data Engineering and Automated Learning, Proceedings of the 17th International Conference, Yangzhou China
30 https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/12/how-self-tracking-apps-exclude-women/383673/
31 https://www.afdb.org/en/blogs/investing-in-gender-equality-for-africa%E2%80%99s-transformation/post/technology-women-and-africa-access-use-creation-and-leadership-13999/]
32 https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016–06-23/artificial-intelligence-has-a-sea-of-dudes-problem
33 http://interactions.acm.org/archive/view/january-february-2014/areyou-sure-your-software-is-gender-neutral
34 http://foreignpolicy.com/2017/01/16/women-vs-the-machine/
35 https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016–06-23/artificial-intelligence-has-a-sea-of-dudes-problem
36 https://www.ncwit.org/sites/default/files/resources/btn_03232017_web.pdf
37 https://www.ft.com/content/ca324dcc-dcb0-11e6-86ac-f253db7791c6
38 https://www.theverge.com/2016/1/11/10749932/vr-hardware-needs-to-fit-women-too
39 https://mic.com/articles/142579/virtual-reality-has-a-sexual-harassment-problem-what-can-we-do-to-stop-it#.ISQgjAanK
40 https://mic.com/articles/157415/my-first-virtual-reality-groping-sexual-assault-in-vr-harassment-in-tech-jordan-belamire#.5lnAqHFW1
41 http://uploadvr.com/dealing-with-harassment-in-vr/
42 Ibid.
43 https://www.newscientist.com/article/2115648-posture-could-explain-why-women-get-more-vr-sickness-than-men/
44 https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3628-women-need-widescreenfor-virtual-navigation
45 https://qz.com/192874/is-the-oculus-rift-designed-to-be-sexist/
46 https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/trafficandcommuting/female-dummy-makes-her-mark-on-male-dominated-crash-tests/2012/03/07/gIQANBLjaS_story.html?utm_term=.5ec23738142a
47 ‘Gendered Innovations: How Gender Analysis Contributes to Research’ (2013), report of the Expert Group ‘Innovation Through Gender’ (chairperson: Londa Schiebinger, rapporteur: Ineke Klinge), Directorate General for Research and Innovation, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union
48 https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ViewPublication/811766
49 https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/trafficandcommuting/female-dummy-makes-her-mark-on-male-dominated-crash-tests/2012/03/07/gIQANBLjaS_story.html?utm_term=.5ec23738142a
50 http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/case-studies/crash.html#tabs-2
51 Ibid.
52 https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/trafficandcommuting/female-dummy-makes-her-mark-on-male-dominated-crash-tests/2012/03/07/gIQANBLjaS_story.html?utm_term=.5ec23738142a
53 Linder, Astrid and Svedberg, Wanna (2018), ‘Occupant Safety Assessment in European Regulatory Tests: Review of Occupant Models, Gaps and Suggestion for Bridging Any Gaps’, conference paper, ‘Road Safety on Five Continents’ South Korea, May 2018
54 http://sciencenordic.com/gender-equality-crash-test-dummies-too
55 Linder and Svedberg (2018)
56 United States Government Publishing Office, ‘U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. 2011. 49 CFR U, -2RE Side Impact Crash Test Dummy, 50th Percentile Adult Male’. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/
CFR-2011-title49-vol7/CFR-2011-title49-vol7-part572-subpartU
57 Linder and Svedberg (2018)
58 http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/case-studies/crash.html#tabs-2
59 http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/leru-paper-gendered-research-and-innovation.pdf; Londa Schiebinger and Martina Schraudner (2011), ‘Inter-disciplinary Approaches to Achieving Gendered Innovations in Science, Medicine, and Engineering’, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 36:2 (June 2011), 154–67
60 http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/case-studies/crash.html#tabs-2
61 ‘Gendered Innovations: How Gender Analysis Contributes to Research’ (2013)
62 http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/case-studies/crash.html#tabs-2
63 https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/trafficandcommuting/female-dummy-makes-her-mark-on-male-dominated-crash-tests/2012/03/07/gIQANBLjaS_story.html?utm_term=.5ec23738142a
64 ‘Gendered Innovations: How Gender Analysis Contributes to Research’ (2013)
65 http://content.tfl.gov.uk/travel-in-london-understanding-our-diverse-communities.pdf; http://www.wnyc.org/story/283137-census-data-show-public-transit-gender-gap/
66 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:41f89a28-1fc6-4c92-b1c8-03327d1b1ecc.0007.02/DOC_1&format=PDF
Chapter 10
1 Marts, Sherry A. and Keitt, Sarah (2004), ‘Principles of Sex-based Differences in Physiology: Foreword: a historical overview of advocacy for research in sex based biology’, Advances in Molecular and Cell Biology, 34, 1–333
2 A Medline search shows that the male norm remains, as practice guidelines and research examples are still often expressed in terms of the typical 70 kg man: Marts and Keitt (2004)
3 Pages 17–18
4 Plataforma SINC (2008), ‘Medical Textbooks Use White, Heterosexual Men As A ‘Universal Model’, ScienceDaily,
5 Dijkstra, A. F, Verdonk, P. and Lagro-Janssen, A. L. M. (2008), ‘Gender bias in medical textbooks: examples from coronary heart disease, depression, alcohol abuse and pharmacology’, Medical Education, 42:10, 1021–8
6 http://www.marieclaire.com/health-fitness/a26741/doctors-treat-women-like-men/
7 Dijkstra et al. (2008)
8 Henrich, Janet B. and Viscoli, Catherine M. (2006), ‘What Do Medical Schools Teach about Women’s Health and Gender Differences?’ Academic Medicine, 81:5
9 Song, Michael M. Jones, Betsy G. and Casanova, Robert A. (2016), ‘Auditing sex- and gender-based medicine (SGBM) content in medical school curriculum: a student scholar model’, Biology of Sex Differences, 7:Suppl 1, 40
10 Marts and Keitt (2004)
11 Karp, Natasha A. et al (2017), ‘Prevalence of sexual dimorphism in mammalian phenotypic traits’, Nature Communications, 8:15475
12 Martha L. Blair (2007), ‘Sex-based differences in physiology: what should we teach in the medical curriculum?’, Advanced Physiological Education, 31, 23–5
13 Ibid.
14 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4800017/ Jan 2016
15 https://theconversation.com/man-flu-is-real-but-women-get-more-autoimmune-diseases-and-allergies-77248
16 https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/why-do-autoimmune-diseases-affect-women-more-often-than-men/2016/10/17/3e224db2-8429-11e6-ac72-a29979381495_story.html?utm_term=.acef157fc395
17 http://www.nature.com/news/infections-reveal-inequality-between-the-sexes-1.20131?WT.mc_id=TWT_NatureNews
18 Ibid.
19 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4157517/
20 Ibid.
21 http://docs.autismresearchcentre.com/papers/2010_Schwartz_SexSpecific_MolAut.pdf
22 Clayton, Janine Austin (2015), ‘Studying both sexes: a guiding principle for biomedicine’, http://www.fasebj.org/content/early/2015/10/28/fj.15–279554.full.pdf+html
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid.
25 https://theconversation.com/not-just-about-sex-throughout-our-bodies-thousands-of-genes-act-differently-in-men-and-women-86613
26 Holdcroft, Anita, Snidvongs, Saowarat and Berkley, Karen J. (2011), ‘Incorporating Gender and Sex Dimensions in Medical Research’, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 36:2, 180–92
27 ‘Gender and Health Knowledge Agenda’, May 2015, ZonMw, Netherlands, http://www.genderportal.eu/sites/default/files/resource_pool/Gender%20%26%20Health%20Knowledge%20Agenda_0.pdf
28 Pollitzer, Elizabeth (2013), ‘Cell sex matters’, Nature, 500, 23–24
29 Londa Schiebinger (2014), ‘Gendered innovations: harnessing the creative power of sex and gender analysis to discover new ideas and develop new technologies’, Triple Helix, 1:9
30 Cristiana Vitale et al. (2017), ‘Under-representation of elderly and women in clinical trials’, International Journal of Cardiology, 232, 216–21
31 The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (2014), ‘Women and HIV/AIDS in the United States’; women also experience different clinical symptoms and complications due to HIV disease
32 http://www.who.int/gender/hiv_aids/hivaids1103.pdf
33 Curno, Mirjam J. et al. (2016), ‘A Systematic Review of the Inclusion (or Exclusion) of Women in HIV Research: From Clinical Studies of Antiretrovirals and Vaccines to Cure Strategies’, Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 1:71(2) (February 2016),. 181–8
34 http://www.wpro.who.int/topics/gender_issues/Takingsexandgenderintoaccount.pdf
35 Ibid.
36 Hughes, Robert N. (2007), ‘Sex does matter: comments on the prevalence of male-only investigations of drug effects on rodent behaviour’, Behavioural Pharmacology, 18:7, 583–9
37 http://helix.northwestern.edu/article/thalidomide-tragedy-lessons-drug-safety-and-regulation
38 https://www.smh.com.au/national/the-50-year-global-cover-up-20120725-22r5c.html
39 http://broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/themes/controversies/thalidomide
40 Marts and Keitt (2004)
41 http://foreignpolicy.com/2014/08/20/why-are-so-many-women-dying-from-ebola/
42 R. D. Fields (2014), ‘Vive la différence requiring medical researchers to test males and females in every experiment sounds reasonable, but it is a bad idea’, Scientific American, 311, 14
43 Richardson, S. S., Reiches, M., Shattuck-Heidorn, H., LaBonte, M. L. and Consoli, T. (2015), ‘Opinion: focus on preclinical sex differences will not address women’s and men’s health disparities’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 112, 13419–20
44 Holdcroft, Anita (2007) ‘Gender bias in research: how does it affect evidence based medicine?’, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 100
45 Ibarra, Manuel, Vázquez, Marta and Fagiolino, Pietro (2017), ‘Sex Effect on Average Bioequivalence’, Clinical Therapeutics, 39:1, 23–33
46 Mergaert, Lut and Lombardo, Emanuela (2014), ‘Resistance to implementing gender mainstreaming in EU research policy’, in Weiner, Elaine and MacRae, Heather (eds.), ‘The persistent invisibility of gender in EU policy’, European Integration online Papers (EIoP), special issue 1, Vol. 18, Article 5, 1–21
47 Ibid.
48 Ibid.
49 Hughes (2007)
50 Pinnow, Ellen, Herz, Naomi, Loyo-Berrios, Nilsa and Tarver, Michelle (2014), ‘Enrollment and Monitoring of Women in Post-Approval Studies for Medical Devices Mandated by the Food and Drug Adminstration’, Journal of Women’s Health, 23:3 (March 2014), 218–23
51 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002870310000864
52 Labots, G., Jones, A., Visser, S. J. de, Rissmann, R. and Burggraaf, J. (2018), ‘Gender differences in clinical registration trials: is there a real problem?’, British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology
53 McGregor, Alyson J. (2017), ‘The Effects of Sex and Gender on Pharmacologic Toxicity: Implications for Clinical Therapy’, Clinical Therapeutics, 39:1
54 Ibid.
55 Ibid.
56 Ibid.
57 Bruinvels, G. et al. (2016), ‘Sport, exerci
se and the menstrual cycle: where is the research?’, British Journal of Sports Medicine, 51:6, 487–488
58 Zopf, Y. et al. (2008), ‘Women encounter ADRs more often than do men’, European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 64:999
59 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC198535/
60 Soldin, Offie P., Chung, Sarah H. and Mattison, Donald R. (2011), ‘Sex Differences in Drug Disposition’, Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, 2011:187103; Anderson, Gail D. (2005), ‘Sex And Racial Differences In Pharmacological Response: Where Is The Evidence? Pharmacogenetics, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacodynamics’, Journal of Women’s Health, 14:1, http://online.liebertpub.com.libproxy.ucl.ac.uk/doi/pdf/10.1089/jwh.2005.14.19
61 Anderson (2005)
62 Hughes (2007)
63 Yoon, Dustin Y. et al. (2014), ‘Sex bias exists in basic science and translational surgical research’, Surgery, 156:3, 508–16
64 https://thinkprogress.org/scientists-avoid-studying-womens-bodies-because-they-get-periods-3fe9d6c39268/
65 Yoon et al. (2014)
66 Karp (2017)
67 Hughes (2007)
68 Yoon et al. (2014)
69 Ibid.
70 Ibid.
71 Ortona, Elena, Delunardo, Federica, Baggio, Giovannella and Malorni, Walter (2016), ‘A sex and gender perspective in medicine: A new Mandatory Challenge For Human Health’, Ann Ist Super Sanità, 52:2, 146–8
72 J. Peretz et al. (2016), ‘Estrogenic compounds reduce influenza A virus in primary human nasal epithelial cells derived from female, but not male, donors’, American Journal of Physiology, 310:5, 415–425
73 http://protomag.com/articles/pain-women-pain-men
74 https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn28064-female-viagra-has-been-approved-heres-what-you-need-to-know/
75 Anderson (2005); Whitley, Heather P. and Lindsey, Wesley (2009), ‘Sex-Based Differences in Drug Activity’, American Family Physician, 80:11 (December 2009), 1254–8
76 https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2015/022526REMS.pdf
77 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4800017/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20799923; Howard, Louise M., Ehrlich, Anna M., Gamlen, Freya and Oram, Sian (2017), ‘Gender-neutral mental health research is sex and gender biased’, Lancet Psychiatry, 4:1, 9–11
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