Adam's Tongue: How Humans Made Language, How Language Made Humans

by Bickerton, Derek

  132 eusocial: Wilson 1971, Gadagkar 1990

  135 ants are extractive foragers: Wilson 1962, Hangartner 1969, Moglich and Hölldobler 1975, Hölldobler 1978

  135 release a chemical: Allies et al. 1986

  137 he removed the lead ant: Hölldobler 1971

  138 “When a forager finds”: Sudd and Franks 1987, p. 112.

  139 Ravens in Winter: Heinrich 1991

  142 did culture seemingly stagnate: Hadingham 1980

  143 Acheulean hand ax: O’Brien 1981, Calvin 1993, Davidson and Noble 1993, Kohn and Mithen 1999.

  8: THE BIG BANG

  147 “Out of Africa”: Stringer and McKie 1996

  147 multiregional hypothesis: Thorne and Wolpoff 1992

  147 As the human family multipled: compare, for example, anthropology.si.edu/humanorigins/ha/a_tree.html and www.livescience.com/history/070831_hn_family_tree.html.

  149 Microevolution’s fine by them: www.antievolution.org/features/nas_ohio_20040209.pdf.

  149 speciation: Foley and Lahr 2005

  149 the published proceedings: Mellars et al. 2007

  149 human and chimp ancestors: Disotell 2006

  150 Ilya Ivanov: journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=124129

  151 a map showing archaeological sites: www.handprint.com/LS/ANC/disp.html. 151 recent discoveries: Spoor et al. 2007

  151 “The fact that they stayed separate”: Maeve Leakey, quoted in The Washington Post, Science Notebook, August 13, 2007

  153 “variable speedism”: Dawkins 1987, p. 247

  154 continental drift: Wegener 1924

  156 woman the gatherer: Dahlberg 1975

  157 man the hunter: Lee and DeVore 1968, Stanford 1999

  157 “Did bands of early humans”: Stanford 1999, p. 106

  159 ants are eusocial: Wilson 1971

  160 Saramaccan: Price 1976

  161 men hunt and women gather: Panter-Brick et al. 2001, Barnard 2004

  162 the enormous number of hand axes: Isaac 1977, Schick 2001

  162 projectiles used in hunting: O’Brien 1981, Calvin 1993

  162 a form of sexual display: Kohn and Mithen 1999, Miller 2000

  163 hacking out chunks: Bunn and Kroll 1986

  164 “Neither would transport”: O’Connell et al. 1999, p. 478. See also O’Connell et al. 1988

  167 “Our Miocene primate ancestors”: Boyd and Richerson n.d., p. 4

  168 “small variations of the”: Wikipedia, “Butterfly effect” (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly_effect).

  9: THE CHALLENGE FROM CHOMSKY

  169 he trounced B. F. Skinner: Chomsky 1959

  170 twin demons of innatism: Hauser 1996, 33–43

  170 “Well, it seems to me”: Chomsky cited in Harnad et al. 1976

  170 ELIZA program: Weizenbaum 1966

  171 the 2002 paper: Hauser, Chomsky, and Fitch 2002

  171 “language, as good a trait”: Hauser 1996, p. 32

  171 “it is almost universally”: Chomsky 1968, p. 59.

  172 “fits beautifully with the conceptual”: Hauser 1996, p. 49

  172 “to attribute this development”: Chomsky 1972, p. 97

  174 thirteen properties: Hockett 1960

  175 cotton-top tamarins: Ramus et al. 2000

  176 inability to distinguish those sounds: Kojima 1990

  176 biological program for language: Bickerton 1981, 1984

  176 twice as many genes as fruit flies: www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071214094106.htm.

  177 The journal Nature: Bickerton 1996

  177 “an overarching concern”: Hauser, Chomsky, and Fitch 2002, p. 1572

  179 “recursion in animals”: ibid, p. 1578

  179–80 Steven Pinker and Ray Jackendoff: Pinker and Jackendoff 2005, Jackendoff and Pinker 2005

  180 nine stages: Jackendoff 2002

  180 in a 1990 paper: Pinker and Bloom 1990

  181 In some small group: Chomsky 2005

  181 There do, however: Chomsky 2005. See also Huybregts 2006

  184 thought and communication: Bickerton 1990

  185 gossip as the engine: Dunbar 1996

  185 Fibonacci numbers: Jenkins 2000

  185 idealization of instantaneity: Botha 1999

  186 “unbounded Merge”: Chomsky 1995

  187 Principle of associativity: Perry et al. 1988, p. 364.

  10: MAKING UP OUR MINDS

  192 “takes information from”: Marcus 2004, p. 114

  194 “offline thinking”: Bickerton 1995

  195 “Ever since Darwin”: Penn et al. 2008. (For an orthodox view, see Premack 2004.)

  196 “but otherwise cognitively”: Hurford 2007, p. 164

  196 “for over 35 years”: Pepperberg 2005

  197 New Caledonian crow: Hunt and Gray 2003

  198 experiments with pigeons: Herrnstein 1979

  199 Scrub jays: Clayton and Dickinson 1998, Clayton et al. 2001

  200 a series of experiments: Zuberbühler et al. 1999

  200 “On hearing first”: Hurford 2007, p. 227

  201 those categories didn’t jell: Langer 2006

  202 David Premack showed: Premack 1983

  203 Japanese macaques: Kawai 1965, Kawamura 1959

  203 Bears rifle garbage cans: Pitt and Jordan 1996

  203 Aterian points: Shea 2006

  204 difference between a concept and a category: Lambert and Shanks 1997, Langer 2006

  206 different kinds of memory: for episodic memory, Tulving 2002, Suddendorf and Busby 2003; for semantic memory, Martin and Chao 2001; for procedural memory, Tamminga 2000.

  11: AN ACORN GROWS TO A SAPLING

  211 twice as big as those of apes: McHenry 1994, table 1

  212 Long-continued increase: Tobias 1971

  212 The fossil and archaeological record: Falk 1993, p. 226

  213 more than doubled, in Neanderthals: Evans et al. 2005

  213 For more than a million years: Jellinek 1977

  214 hardly more complex than those of Cro-Magnons: Fagan and Van Noten 1971, Best 2003

  217 arbitrariness: Saussure 2006

  220 between 2 million and 1.6 million years: Roche et al. 2002, Monahan 1996, Larick and Ciochon 1996

  221 new and significant information: Dessalles 2008

  222 they don’t negate like mother does: Brown 1973

  223 figment: Dennett 1991, p. 346

  225 the good old-time pidgins: Bickerton 1981, 2008

  225 “almost unimaginable monotony”: Jellinek 1977, p. 28

  228 “In the forest, Fred”: Bowie 2008

  230 Rotokas: Robinson 2006; Ixoo: Traill 1981.

  12: THE SAPLING BECOMES AN OAK

  232 beginning to use ochre: Marshack 1981

  232 some form of trade: McBrearty and Brooks 2000, Feblot-Augustine 1998

  233 establishment of neural links: Pulvermuller 2002

  233 degrades message quality: Calvin and Bickerton 2000

  236 follows the structure of the syntax: Dogil et al. 2002

  237 Each language determines: Croft and Deligianni 2001

  237 fulfill a specific role: Pinker 1989, Grimshaw 1990

  238 Pirahã: Everett 2005, 2007

  238 New Yorker: Colapinto 2007

  239 Chomskyan linguists launched: Nevins et al. 2007

  240 Syntactic Structures: Chomsky 1957

  242 “generalized phrase-marker”: Chomsky 1965

  244 Generalivists such as Luigi Rizzi: Rizzi 2009

  245 il miglior fabbro: Eliot 1998, p. 53

  246 the Great Leap Forward: Klein 2002, McBrearty and Brooks 2000, d’Errico et al. 2005

  246 negative niche construction: Odling-Smee et al. 2003, Diamond 2005

  248 this is not the case: Balter 2005, Voight et al. 2006.

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