31 Suetonius, Caesar 21, 50. 1 – 2, and on his fondness for pearls 47, Plutarch, Pompey 47 – 48, Caesar 14, Dio 38. 9. 1.
32 Dio 38. 7. 3, Suetonius, Caesar 20. 3, Cicero, ad Att. 2. 15, 16, 17 and 18.
33 Dio 38. 12. 1 – 3, Cicero, de Domo 41, ad Att. 8. 3, de provinciis consularibus 42, Suetonius, Caesar 20. 4, Plutarch, Caesar 14; see also Gelzer (1968), pp. 76 – 78.
34 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 9.
35 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 16 and 17; on C. Cato see ad Quintum Fratrem 1. 2. 5.
36 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 19.
37 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 21, 22 and 23.
38 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 24.
39 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 24, In Vatinium 24 – 26, pro Sestio 132, Dio 38. 9. 2 – 10. 1, Suetonius, Caesar 20. 5, Appian, BC 2. 12 – 13, Plutarch, Lucullus 42. 7 – 8; for Caesar as the prime mover behind these events see Rice Holmes (1928), pp. 323 – 324 and Gelzer (1968), pp. 90 – 92, Meier (1996), p. 221; for Clodius see Seager (2002), pp. 98 – 99; for Pompey’s involvement see Ward (1977), pp. 236 – 241, Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp. 95 – 96; for a more complex interpretation and the suggestion that there may actually have been a plot see D. Stockton, Cicero (1971), pp. 183 – 186.
40 Suetonius, Caesar 23, 73, Scholia Bobiensia on Cicero, pro Sestio 40 and In Vatinium 15.
41 Suetonius, Caesar 22. 2 (Loeb translation); on Cicero’s fears of civil war see ad Att. 2. 20, 21 and 22.
IX Gaul
1 Pliny, NH 7. 92.
2 Hirtius from his preface to BG 8.
3 Pliny, NH 7. 92, Appian, BC 2. 150.
4 For Theophanes see Cicero, pro Archia 24; for Caesar’s earlier works see Suetonius, Caesar 56. 5 – 7; for the Commentaries in general see the collection of papers in K. Welch & A. Powell (eds.), Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter: The War Commentaries as Political Instruments (1998).
5 Cicero, Brutus 262.
6 ‘An orator should avoid a …’, see Gellius, NA 1. 10. 4; see also L. Hall, ‘Ratio and Romanitas in the Bellum Gallicum’, in Welch & Powell (1998), pp. 11 – 43, esp. p. 23.
7 For the dating of the Commentaries see M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 170 – 172, C. Meier, Caesar (1996), pp. 254 – 264; for the arguments in favour of annual publication see Welch & Powell (1998), and especially the article by P. Wiseman, ‘The Publication of the De Bello Gallico’, pp. 1 – 9, and also T. Rice Holmes, Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul (1911), pp. 202 – 209 see also Hirtius, BG 8 preface and Suetonius, Caesar 56. 3 – 4.
8 Cicero, de Finibus 5. 52; see also Wiseman (1998), esp. pp. 4 – 7.
9 Suetonius, Caesar 56. 4.
10 Cicero, de provinciis consularibus 3. 5, ad Quintum Fratrem 2. 14 – 16, 3. 1 – 9.
11 On Labienus see R. Syme, ‘The Allegiance of Labienus’, JRS 28 (1938), pp. 113 – 128, esp. p. 120 and W. Tyrrell, ‘Labienus’ Departure from Caesar in January 49 BC’, Historia 21 (1972), pp. 424 – 440.
12 On Cotta’s book see Cicero, ad Att. 13. 44. 3, cf. Athenaeus 273b and Hall, (1998), pp. 11 – 43, esp. p. 25; on the identity of Caesar’s legates see Broughton, MRR 2, pp. 197 – 199.
13 Caesar, BG 1. 39; Cicero, ad Att. 2. 18. 3, 19. 5, de provinciis consularibus 41; E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp. 112 – 116.
14 For Caesar’s legions see H. Parker, The Roman Legions (1957), pp. 47 – 71, esp. 55 – 56. On the army in this period see F. Adcock, The Roman Art of War under the Republic (1940), P. Brunt, Italian Manpower, 225 BC – AD 14 (1971), P. Connolly, Greece and Rome at War (1981), M. Feugère (ed.), L’Équipment Militaire et L’Armement de la République. JRMES 8 (1997), E. Gabba, The Roman Republic, the Army and the Allies (1976), L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984), Y. Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army (1994), J. Harmand, L’armée et le soldat à Rome de 107 à 50 avant nôtre ère (1967).
15 For an introduction to this question with further references see A. Goldsworthy. The Roman Army at War, 100 BC – AD 200 (1996), pp. 31 – 32.
16 For equipment see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 83 – 84, 209 – 219, M. Bishop & J. Coulston, Roman Military Equipment (1993), Connolly, (1981), and Feugère, (1997).
17 See D. Saddington, The Development of the Roman Auxiliary Forces from Caesar to Vespasian (1982); Caesar, BC 1. 39 for numbers of auxiliary cavalry and infantry.
18 For a discussion of this see C. Goudineau, César et la Gaule (1995), pp. 130 – 148.
19 Caesar, BG 1. 1, 6. 11 – 20; for a good survey of Gallic society see N. Roymans, Tribal Societies in Northern Gaul: An Anthropological Perspective, Cingula 12 (1990), esp. pp. 17 – 47, and B. Cunliffe, Greeks, Romans and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction (1988), esp. pp. 38 – 58 and 80 – 105.
20 See M. Todd, The Northern Barbarians (1987), pp. 11 – 13, The Early Germans (1992), pp. 8 – 13, C. M. Wells, The German Policy of Augustus (1972), pp. 14 – 31, and most recently the useful survey in P. Wells, The Barbarians Speak: How the Conquered Peoples Shaped the Roman Empire (1999).
21 For Domitius Ahenobarbus see Suetonius, Nero 2; on exchanging a slave for an amphora see Diodorus Siculus 5. 26. 3 – 4; on the relations between Gauls and Romans and the history of Transalpine Gaul see S. Dyson, The Creation of the Roman Frontier (1985), pp. 126 – 173; on the wine trade see Cunliffe (1988), 59 – 105, esp. p. 74, and Roymans (1990), pp. 147 – 167 and A. Tchernia, ‘Italian Wine in Gaul at the End of the Republic’, in P. Garnsey, K. Hopkins & C. Whittaker (eds.), Trade in the Ancient Economy (1983), pp. 87 – 104.
22 Wells (1999), pp. 49 – 78, Cunliffe (1988), pp. 48 – 49, 86 – 87, 96 – 97, 132 – 134, Dyson (1985), pp. 137 – 139, 154, and C. Goudineau (1995), pp. 141 – 143.
23 On human sacrifice at Rome see Pliny, NH 30. 12 – 13; on head-hunting see Polybius 3. 67, Livy 10. 26, 23. 24, Diodorus Siculus 5. 29. 2 – 5, M. Green, Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend (1992), pp. 116 – 118; on human sacrifice in Germany see Todd (1992), pp. 112 – 115.
24 Strabo, Geog. 4. 4. 5 (Loeb translation by H. Jones (1923), p. 247).
25 Caesar, BG 6. 15, cf. Strabo, Geog. 4. 4. 2; on Ribemont-sur – Ancre see T. Derks, Gods, Temples and Ritual Practices: The Transformation of Religious Ideas and Values in Roman Gaul (1998), p. 48, 234 – 5.
26 Caesar, BG 1. 18, 31 – 33; see also Dyson (1985), pp. 169 – 170, Cunliffe (1988), p. 94, 118.
27 For a more detailed discussion of Gallic armies see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 53 – 60.
28 Dyson (1985), pp. 168 – 171; Caesar, BG 1. 36, 40, 44, Cicero, ad Att. 1. 19, 20.
X Migrants and Mercenaries: The first campaigns, 58 BC
1 Cicero, ad Att. 1. 19.
2 Caesar, BG 1. 6 – 7, Plutarch, Caesar 17.
3 Caesar, BG 1. 2.
4 Caesar, BG 1. 2 – 3, 18, cf. C. Goudineau, César et la Gaule (1995), 136 – 137.
5 Caesar, BG 1. 4, Pliny, NH 2. 170 records the meeting between Roman ambassadors and a Suebian king, who was probably Ariovistus; see also S. Dyson, The Creation of the Roman Frontier (1985), pp. 169 – 170. 172, B. Cunliffe, Greeks, Romans and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction (1988), pp. 114 – 117.
6 For a discussion see T. Rice Holmes, Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul (1911) pp. 218 – 224, and H. Delbrück, History of the Art of War, Volume 1: Warfare in Antiquity (1975), pp. 459 – 478.
7 Caesar, BG 6. 11; on the desire for allied tribes around provincial frontiers see Dyson (1985), pp. 170 – 173.
8 Caesar, BG 1. 5 – 6; for the focus on the Balkans, see Goudineau (1995), pp. 130 – 148; for Helvetii’s numbers and size of columns see Holmes (1911), pp. 239 – 240, Delbrück (1975), pp. 460 – 463.
9 Caesar, BG 1. 7 – 8, cf Appian, Mithridatic Wars 99, Plutarch, Crassus 10.
10 Caesar, BG 1. 8.
11 Caesar, BG 1. 10.
12 Caesar, BG 1. 10 – 11, Cicero, de provinciis consularibus 28, Suetonius, Caesar 24; L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984), p. 98.
13 Caesar, BG 1. 11, 16; on the logistics of the Roman army, including
discussions of the number of slaves and camp followers see P. Erdkamp, Hunger and Sword: Warfare and Food Supply in Roman Republican Wars 264 – 30 BC (1998), J. Roth, The Logistics of the Roman Army at War, 264 BC – AD 235 (1999), A. Labisch, Frumentum Commeatusque. Die Nahrungsmittelversongung der Heere Caesars (1975), and A. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War, 100 BC – AD 200 (1996), pp. 287 – 296.
14 Caesar, BG 1. 12.
15 Caesar, BG 1. 13.
16 Caesar, BG 1. 13 – 14.
17 Caesar, BG 1. 15 – 16.
18 Caesar, BG 1. 16 – 20, cf. Goudineau (1995), p. 138.
19 See Arrian, Alexander 3. 10. 1 – 4 on the danger and difficulties of night attacks.
20 Caesar, BG 1. 21 – 22; for a discussion of this operation see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 128 – 130.
21 Caesar, BG 1. 23.
22 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 59, Plutarch, Crassus 11. 6; for a discussion of the commander’s role before and during battle see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 131 – 163; on pre-battle speeches see M. Hansen, ‘The Battle Exhortation in Ancient Historiography: Fact or Fiction’, Historia 42 (1993), pp. 161 – 180.
23 For the battle see Caesar, BG 1. 24 – 26; for discussion of the nature of battles in this period see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 171 – 247.
24 Caesar, BG 26 – 29.
25 Caesar, BG 1. 30 – 33.
26 Caesar, BG 1. 34 – 37.
27 Caesar, BG 1. 39.
28 Dio 38. 35. 2.
29 Caesar, BG 1. 40.
30 Caesar, BG 1. 39 – 41.
31 Caesar, BG 1. 41, cf. Plutarch, Sulla 5 for the fame he derived from being the first Roman magistrate to receive a Parthian envoy.
32 Caesar, BG 1. 42 – 46.
33 Caesar, BG 1. 46 – 47.
34 Caesar, BG 1. 48, cf. Tacitus, Germania 6; for a discussion of Germanic armies see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 42 – 53.
35 Caesar, BG 1. 49.
36 For the encouragement offered by German women to their warrior husbands see Tacitus, Germania 7 – 8.
37 Caesar, BG 1. 51 – 54; See Frontinus, Strategemata 2. 6. 3 on letting the Germans escape.
38 Caesar, BG 1. 54.
XI ‘The Bravest of the Gaulish Peoples’: The Belgae, 57 BC
1 Caesar, BG 2. 15.
2 Strabo, Geog. 4. 4. 2 (Loeb translation by H. Jones (1923), p. 237).
3 For promotions of centurions for gallantry see Caesar, BG 6. 40; Suetonius, Caesar 65. 1; on centurions’ command style and heavy casualties see A. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War, 100 BC – AD 200 (1996), pp. 257 – 8, cf. Caesar, BG 7. 51, BC 3. 99; also on the competition to show conspicuous valour and win promotion or reward see BG 5. 44, 7. 47, 50, BC 3. 91.
4 On sudden marches and relaxed discipline see Suetonius, Caesar 65, 67; for a discussion of Marius’ style of command see A. Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome (2003), pp. 113 – 136 (or 2004 edn, pp. 127 – 153).
5 Plutarch, Caesar 17 (Loeb translation by B. Perrin (1919), p. 483).
6 See Suetonius, Caesar 67. 2 for commilitones and inlaid weapons; see also Polybius 6. 39 and Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 264 – 282 on individual boldness.
7 On Pompeius Trogus see Justin, 43. 5. 12; for Caesar dictating letters while on horseback see Plutarch, Caesar 17; on receiving petitioners while in Cisalpine Gaul for the winter, Plutarch, Caesar 20.
8 On Valerius Meto see Plutarch, Caesar 17; for dining arrangements see Suetonius, Caesar 48; Catullus, 29.
9 Catullus, 57 (Loeb translation by F. Cornish (1988), pp. 67 – 69).
10 Suetonius, Caesar 73.
11 Suetonius, Caesar 51; Tacitus, Histories 4. 55; for other poems attacking Mamurra see Catullus, 41, 43.
12 Caesar, BG 2. 1; for a summary of Pompey’s campaigns see Goldsworthy (2003), pp. 169 – 179 (or 2004 edn, pp. 190 – 201).
13 See N. Roymans, Tribal Societies in Northern Gaul: An Anthropological Perspective, Cingula 12 (1990), pp. 11 – 15, cf. Tacitus, Germania 28, Caesar, BG 2. 4, 15, 5. 12; on resistance to Cimbri see BG 2. 4, and descent from them of the Atuatuci, 2. 29.
14 Caesar, BG 2. 2 – 5; on numbers see T. Rice Holmes, Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul (1911), p. 71, and L. Rawlings, ‘Caesar’s Portrayal of Gauls as Warriors’, in K. Welch & A. Powell, Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter: The War Commentaries as Political Instruments (1998), pp. 171 – 192, esp. 175, and fn. 13. For an extremely critical view of Caesar’s numbers see H. Delbrück, History of the Art of War, Volume 1: Warfare in Antiquity (1975), pp.488 – 494. Delbrück believed that barbarians were markedly superior fighters to civilised Romans, and as a result consistently reduces the size of their forces, while inflating the numbers in Caesar’s army.
15 Caesar, BG 2. 5 – 7.
16 For Sulla’s use of trenches to protect his flanks see Frontinus, Strategemata 2. 3. 17.
17 Caesar, BG 2. 8 – 11.
18 Caesar, BG 2. 11 – 13.
19 Caesar, BG 2. 13 – 15.
20 Caesar, BG 2. 16 – 18, cf. 28 on the strength of the Nervii at the battle.
21 For the possible significance of the site see Rawlings (1998), pp. 176 – 177; for the suggestion of Maubeuge see Rice Holmes (1911), p. 76.
22 Caesar, BG 2. 19; cf. Rice Holmes (1911), p. 77 for Napoleon’s comments; on marching camps see Goldsworthy (1996), pp.111 – 113.
23 Caesar, BG 2. 20; on delays before battle see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 143 – 145.
24 Caesar, BG 2. 20 – 24.
25 Caesar, BG 2. 25.
26 See Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 154 – 163, esp. 160 – 161, and (2003), pp. 155, 176, 195 (or 2004 edn, pp. 175, 198, 219); on the nature of combat see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 191 – 227.
27 Caesar, BG 2. 27 – 28.
28 Caesar, BG 2. 29 – 32.
29 Caesar, BG 2. 33; on his reluctance to let soldiers loose in a town during the hours of darkness see BC 1. 21, 2. 12, African War 3; on ritual offerings see BG 6. 17, Suetonius, Caesar 54. 2.
30 Caesar, BG 2. 35, Dio 39. 25. 1 – 2, cf. M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 116 – 118.
XII Politics and War: The Conference of Luca
1 Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 2. 3. 3 – 4.
2 Cicero, de provinciis consularibus 25.
3 Publius and Claudia in the First Punic War see Livy, Pers. 19, Cicero, de natura deorum 2. 7, Florus 1. 19. 29, Suetonius, Tiberius 2. 3, Gellius, NA 10. 6.
4 Plutarch, Lucullus 34, 38, Cicero, pro Milone 73; for a discussion of the family’s position see E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp. 97 – 100; on the identity of Lesbia see Apuleius, Apologia 10.
5 Dio 38. 12 – 13, see also M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 96 – 99, G. Rickman, The Corn Supply of Ancient Rome (1979), pp. 104 – 119.
6 Plutarch, Cicero 30 – 32, Cato the Younger 34 – 40, see also D. Stockton, Cicero (1971), pp. 167 – 193, R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp. 101 – 103.
7 Plutarch, Cicero 33 – 34, Seager (2002), 103 – 109.
8 Cicero, pro Sestio 71, de provinciis consularibus 43, In Pisonem 80, ad Fam. 1. 9. 9; on Pompey and the Egyptian command see especially Cicero, ad Fam. 1. 1 – 9; see also Seager (2002), pp. 107 – 109, Gelzer (1968), pp. 117 – 119.
9 Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 2. 3. 2.
10 For Ahenobarbus see Cicero, ad Att. 4. 8b; for the Campanian land see Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 2. 1. 1, 6. 1, ad Fam. 1. 9. 8.
11 Suetonius, Caesar 24. 1.
12 Appian, BC 2. 17, Plutarch, Pompey 50, Caesar 21, Crassus 14; see also Gelzer (1968), pp. 120 – 124, Seager (2002), pp. 110 – 119, C. Meier Caesar (1996), pp. 270 – 273, A. Ward, Marcus Crassus and the Late Roman Republic (1977), pp. 262 – 288.
13 Cicero, ad Fam. 1. 9. 8 – 10, ad Quintum Fratrem 2. 7. 2; for the accusation of incest between Clodia and her brother see pro Caelio 32.
14 Cicero, de provinciis consularibus 32 – 33.
15 Plutarch, Crassus 15, Pompey 51 – 52, Cato the Younger 41 – 42, Dio 39. 27. 1 – 32. 3; Seager (2002), pp. 120 – 122.
&
nbsp; 16 For ‘All Gaul at peace’ see Caesar, BG 3. 7, for Galba in the Alps see 3. 1 – 6, for Crassus see 2. 34, 3. 7.
17 Caesar, BG 3. 8 – 11.
18 Caesar, BG 3. 11 – 16; cf. Gelzer (2002), p. 126, and Meier (1996), pp. 274 – 275 pointing out that Caesar’s officers were not ambassadors.
19 For Sabinus see Caesar, BG 3. 17 – 19; for Crassus see 3. 20 – 26, for Caesar and the Morini see 3. 27 – 28.
13 ‘Over the Waters’: The British and German Expeditions, 55 – 54 BC
1 Cicero, ad Att. 4. 18.
2 Tacitus, Agricola 13.
3 Caesar, BG 4. 20, Suetonius, Caesar 47, Plutarch, Caesar 23.
4 Caesar, BG 4. 1 – 4, Plutarch, Caesar 22; for a detailed discussion of the incident see A. Powell, ‘Julius Caesar and the Presentation of Massacre’, in K. Welch & A. Powell (eds.), Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter: The War Commentaries as Political Instruments (1998), pp. 111 – 137.
5 See Powell (1998), esp. pp. 124 – 129; on Roman resistance to peoples moving into frontier zones see S. Dyson, The Creation of the Roman Frontier (1985), esp. pp. 172 – 173.
6 Caesar, BG 4. 5 – 7; in 52 BC he referred to his reluctance to trust his security to the tribal leaders, see BG 7. 6.
7 Caesar, BG 4. 7 – 9.
8 Caesar, BG 4. 11 – 12; cf. 4. 2 on German scorn for saddles; on small size of German horses see 7. 65, Tacitus, Germania 6.
9 Caesar, BG 4. 13 – 14.
10 Caesar, BG 4. 14 – 15.
11 Caesar, BG 4. 14 – 16.
12 Plutarch, Cato the Younger 51. 1 – 2 (Loeb translation).
13 Suetonius, Caesar 24. 3, and M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 130 – 132, C. Meier, Caesar (1996), pp. 282 – 284.
14 Plutarch, Cato the Younger 51. 2 (Loeb Translation).
15 On Cato’s attack see Powell (1998), pp. 123, 127 – 128, Gelzer (1968), pp. 131 – 132.
Caesar Page 74