16 Caesar, BG 4. 16 – 18, cf. T. Rice Holmes, Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul (1911), p. 100.
17 Caesar, BG 4. 18 – 19.
18 Caesar, BG 4. 20, 22. For general accounts of Caesar’s expeditions and their place within the wider context of the later Roman conquest of Britain see G. Webster, The Roman Invasion of Britain, rev. edn (1993), pp. 43 – 40, and M. Todd, Roman Britain, 3rd edn. (1999), pp. 4 – 22. The most detailed treatment remains T. Rice Holmes, Ancient Britain and the Invasions of Julius Caesar (1907). See also the excellent recent analysis by G. Grainge, The Roman Invasions of Britain (2005), esp. pp. 83 – 109. It is not possible in a study of this nature to enter into the vigorous debates over many of the details of Caesar’s expeditions.
19 Caesar, BG 4. 20 – 21; see the comments in N. Austin & B. Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World (1995), p. 13, who are critical of Caesar’s failure to discover more information and cite Polybius 3. 48 in support. On the ports of Britain and trade with Europe see B. Cunliffe, Greeks, Romans and Barbarians (1988), pp. 145 – 149; on the coastline see the survey in Grainge (2005), pp. 17 – 42, 105 – 107.
20 Caesar, BG 4. 23 – 24; on the possible choice of Dover for the landing see Grainge (2005), pp. 101 – 105.
21 Caesar, BG 4. 25.
22 Caesar, BG 4. 25 – 26.
23 Caesar, BG 4. 27 – 30; for ‘ … peace was established’, see 4. 28; see also Grainge (2005), pp. 107 – 109.
24 Caesar, BG 4. 33.
25 Caesar, BG 4. 32 – 35.
26 Caesar, BG 4. 36 – 38.
27 Caesar, BG 4. 38, Dio 39. 53. 1 – 2.
28 Caesar, BG 5. 1 – 7.
29 Caesar, BG 5. 5, 8.
30 Caesar, BG 5. 9.
31 Caesar, BG 5. 10 – 11; see also Grainge (2005), p. 105 – 106.
32 Caesar, BG 5. 11, 15 – 16.
33 Caesar, BG 5. 17 – 22.
34 Caesar, BG 5. 22 – 23. In AD 16 part of a Roman army travelling by sea off Germany was blown off course and landed in Britain. The soldiers brought back wild tales of its inhabitants, see Tacitus, Annals 2. 24.
35 Cicero, ad Att. 4. 17; on excitement from receipt of his brother Quintus’ account of operations in Britain see ad Quintum Fratrem 2. 16. 4.
XIV Rebellion, Disaster and Vengeance
1 Caesar, BG 5. 33.
2 Plutarch, Pompey 53, Suetonius, Caesar 26. 1, Vellieus Paterculus 2. 47. 2, Dio 39. 64.
3 Plutarch, Caesar 23; on Trebonius’ law see Velleius Paterculus 2. 46. 2, Plutarch, Crassus 15, Dio 39. 33. 2; on Pompey’s position at this period see R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp. 120 – 132, esp. 123 – 124.
4 Plutarch, Crassus 15 – 16, Dio 39. 39. 5 – 7, Cicero, ad Att. 4. 13. 2, and A. Ward, Marcus Crassus and the Late Roman Republic (1977), pp. 243 – 253, 262 – 288.
5 Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 2. 15a. 3; for letters to Cicero from Caesar during the British campaign see Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 3. 1. 17 and 25, ad Att. 4. 18. 5; on Quintus as Caesar’s legate see M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 138 – 139.
6 For letter of recommendation to Caesar see Cicero, ad Fam. 7. 5, letters to Trebatius, ad Fam. 7. 6 – 19, Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 2. 15a. 3 for quote; see also Gelzer (1968), pp. 138 – 139.
7 Caesar, BG 5. 24 – 25; Cicero, ad Att. 4. 19.
8 Caesar, BG 5. 26.
9 Caesar, BG 5. 26 – 37.
10 For a discussion see A. Powell, ‘Julius Caesar and the Presentation of Massacre’, in K. Welch & A. Powell (eds.), Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter: The War Commentaries as Political Instruments (1998), pp. 111 – 137, esp. 116 – 121, & Gelzer (1968), p. 143; for it seen as Caesar’s defeat see Suetonius, Caesar 25. 2, Plutarch, Caesar 24, Appian, BC 2. 150; for a consideration of this campaign within the framework of Roman strategy see A. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War, 100 BC – AD 200 (1996), pp. 79 – 84, 90 – 95.
11 Caesar, BG 5. 38 – 45, 52; on four tragedies in sixteen days see Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 3. 5/6. 8.
12 Caesar, BG 5. 46 – 47; on the presence of Trebatius see Cicero, ad Fam. 7. 16, 11, 12.
13 Caesar, BG 5. 47 – 48, Suetonius, Caesar 67. 2.
14 Caesar, BG 5. 48 – 49, Suetonius, Caesar 66.
15 Caesar, BG 5. 49 – 51.
16 Cicero, ad Fam. 7. 10. 2.
17 Caesar, BG 5. 53.
18 Caesar, BG 5. 52 – 58.
19 Caesar, BG 6. 1 – 2; on plundering see J. Roth, The Logistics of the Roman Army at War, 264 BC – AD 235 (1999), pp. 305 – 309; on legionary numbers see L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984), p. 87.
20 Caesar, BG 6. 3 – 4.
21 Caesar, BG 6. 5 – 8.
22 Caesar, BG 6. 9 – 10, 29.
23 For a wide discussion of the importance of rivers see D. Braund, ‘River Frontiers in the Environmental Psychology of the Roman World’, in D. Kennedy (ed.), The Roman Army in the East, JRA Supplementary Series 18 (1996), pp. 43 – 47.
24 Caesar, BG 6. 29 – 34, on the death of Catuvolcus see 6. 31.
25 Caesar, BG 6. 43.
26 Caesar, BG 6. 35 – 44; on the impact of Caesar’s campaigns on the region see N. Roymans, Tribal Societies in Northern Gaul: An Anthropological Perspective, Cingula 12 (1990), pp. 136 – 144 and ‘The North Belgic Tribes in the First Century BC’ in R. Brandt & J. Slofstra (eds.), Roman and Native in the Low Countries, BAR 184 (1983), pp. 43 – 69.
27 On date of release see P. Wiseman, ‘The Publication of the De Bello Gallico’, in Welch & Powell (1998), pp. 1 – 9, esp. 5 – 6; on the elk see Caesar, BG 6. 27.
28 The main accounts of Carrhae are Plutarch, Crassus 17 – 33 and Dio 40. 12 – 30.
XV The Man and the Hour: Vercingetorix and the Great Revolt, 52 BC
1 Caesar, BG 7. 1.
2 For a classic study of fighting ‘colonial’ wars between a regular army on one side and irregular forces on the other see C. Calwell, Small Wars (1906); a readily accessible introduction to the topic is D. Porch, Wars of Empire (2000).
3 On elevation of Commius see Caesar, BG 7. 76.
4 For reaction to death of Acco see Caesar, BG, 7. 1 – 2; importance of a retinue, BG 1. 18, 6. 15; annual meeting of druids in land of Carnutes, BG 6. 13; for Caesar’s attitude to the Gauls see J. Barlow, ‘Noble Gauls and their other,’ and L. Rawlings, ‘Caesar’s Portrayal of the Gauls as Warriors,’ both in K. Welch & A. Powell (eds.), Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter: the War Commentaries as Political Instruments (1998), pp. 139 – 170, and 171 – 192 respectively.
5 For the events of these months in Rome see M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 145 – 152, C. Meier, Caesar (1996), pp. 297 – 301, and R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp. 126 – 135; Cicero in Ravenna, ad Att. 7. 1. 4; on the role of legates see K. Welch, ‘Caesar and his Officers in the Gallic War Commentaries’, in Welch & Powell (1998), pp. 85 – 103.
6 Caesar, BG 7. 4; on friendly relations between Vercingetorix and Caesar see Dio 40. 41. 1, 3.
7 Caesar, BG 7. 5; on rebellions see A. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War, 100 BC – AD 200 (1996), pp. 79 – 95, esp. 90 – 95.
8 Caesar, BG 7. 6 – 7; for 400 German cavalry see 7. 13.
9 Caesar, BG 7. 7 – 9; Suetonius, Caesar 58. 1 for story of dressing as a Gaul.
10 Caesar, BG 7. 10; on initiative see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 90 – 92, 94 – 95, 99 – 100, 114 – 115, and Calwell (1906), pp. 71 – 83.
11 Caesar, BG 7. 11 – 13.
12 Caesar, BG 7. 14.
13 Caesar, BG 7. 14 – 15.
14 Caesar, BG 7. 16 – 17; for the types of food eaten by Roman soldiers see R. Davies, ‘The Roman Military Diet’, in R. Davies, Service in the Roman Army (1989), pp. 187 – 206.
15 Caesar, BG 7. 18 – 21; on the problems of supplying tribal armies see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 56 – 60.
16 Caesar, BG 7. 22 – 25; cf. Rawlings (1998), pp. 171 – 192.
17 Caesar, BG 7. 28.
18 Caesar, BG 7. 26 – 28; Polybius 10
. 15. 4 – 6, cf. W. Harris, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327 – 70 BC (1979), pp. 51 – 53.
19 Caesar, BG 7. 32 – 34.
20 Caesar, BG 7. 28 – 31, 35.
21 Caesar, BG 7. 36.
22 Caesar, BG 7. 37 – 41.
23 Caesar, BG 7. 42 – 44.
24 Caesar, BG 7. 45.
25 Caesar, BG 7. 47.
26 Caesar, BG 7. 50.
27 For the account of Gergovia see Caesar, BG 7. 44 – 54, and see also the comments on the style of this passage in A. Powell, ‘Julius Caesar and the Presentation of Massacre’, in Welch & Powell, (1998), pp. 111 – 137, esp. 122 – 123; for ‘kicking the enemy in the stomach’ see Plutarch, Lucullus 9. 1.
28 Caesar, BG 7. 55 – 56, 63 – 67; for Labienus’ operations see 7. 57 – 62.
29 Caesar, BG 7. 68 – 69; on this campaign see J. Harmand, Une Campagne Césarienne: Alésia (1967), J. Le Gall, La Bataille D’Alésia (2000), and H. Delbrück, History of the Art of War, Volume 1: Warfare in Antiquity (1975), pp. 495 – 507, mentioning Napoleon’s comments on p. 501.
30 Caesar, BG 7. 69, 72 – 73, and comments in Le Gall (2000), pp. 64 – 77.
31 Caesar, BG 7. 70 – 71, 75 – 78; for a discussion of the size of the relief army see Le Gall (2000), pp. 82 – 84.
32 Caesar, BG 7. 79 – 81.
33 Caesar, BG 7. 88.
34 For the account of the final battle see Caesar, BG 7. 82 – 88.
35 Caesar, BG 7. 89, Plutarch, Caesar 27. 5, Dio 40. 41. 1 – 3.
36 Caesar, BG 7. 89 – 90.
XVI ‘All Gaul is Conquered’
1 Cicero. ad Fam. 8. 1. 4
2 Suetonius, Caesar 56. 5, Cicero, Brutus 252 – 255, ad Quintum Fratrem 2. 16. 5, 3. 9. 6 – 7.
3 On the opening of Pompey’s theatre see Dio 39. 38. 1 – 6, Pliny, NH 7. 34, 8. 21 – 22, Plutarch, Pompey 52 – 53. 1; for criticism of Pompey see Cicero, de Officiis 2. 60, and of others, Tacitus, Annals 14. 20; the number of elephants was variously reported as seventeen, eighteen and twenty.
4 Cicero, ad Att. 4. 17. 7, Suetonius, Caesar 26. 2, Pliny, NH 36. 103; for gladiators in school at Capua see Caesar, BC 1. 14, and on the importance of games see Z. Yavetz, Julius Caesar and His Public Image (1983), pp. 165 – 168.
5 See Dio 40. 48. 1 – 52. 4, Plutarch, Pompey 54 – 55, and also R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp. 130 – 135, M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 148 – 152.
6 Plutarch, Cicero 35, Dio 40. 54. 1 – 4, E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp. 338 – 342.
7 Seager (2002), pp. 137 – 139, Gruen (1974), pp. 150 – 159.
8 Plutarch, Pompey 55. 1 – 2, Cato the Younger 49 – 50, Dio 40. 56. 3 – 58. 4, Suetonius, Caesar 28. 3; Seager (2002), pp. 131 – 132, Gruen (1974), pp. 154, 454.
9 Caesar, BC 1. 32, Suetonius, Caesar 26. 1, Appian, BC 2. 25, Dio 40. 51. 2, and Gelzer (1968), pp. 146 – 148, Seager (2002), pp. 137 – 139.
10 Caesar, BG 8. 1 – 5.
11 For the campaign against the Bellovaci see Caesar, BG 8. 6 – 23; Commius, 8. 23, 47 – 48; Ambiorix, 8. 25.
12 Caesar, BG 8. 49.
13 On Uxellodunum see Caesar, BG 8. 26 – 44, and comments on executions in A. Powell, ‘Julius Caesar and the Presentation of Massacre’, in K. Welch & A. Powell (eds.), Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter: The War Commentaries as Political Instruments (1998), pp. 111 – 137, esp. 129 – 132; Carnutes, 8. 38; for rebellion of Bellovaci in 46 BC see Livy Pers. 114.
14 On casualties see Plutarch, Caesar 15, Pliny, NH 7. 92, Velleius Paterculus 2. 47. 1, and see comments in C. Goudineau, César et la Gaule (1995), pp. 308 – 311.
15 For a discussion of Caesar as a general see A. Goldsworthy, ‘Instinctive Genius: The depiction of Caesar the General’, in K. Welch & A. Powell (1998), pp. 193 – 219.
XVII The Road to the Rubicon
1 Suetonius, Caesar 31. 2.
2 Cicero, ad Att. 7. 3.
3 On the struggle to get the ten tribunes to pass the law see Cicero, ad Fam. 6. 6. 5, and ad Att. 7. 3. 4, 8. 3. 3.
4 On Caesar’s alleged ambition see Suetonius, Caesar 9, Plutarch, Caesar 4, 6, 28, Cicero, Philippics 5. 49.
5 For Cato and Pompey see Plutarch, Cato the Younger 48. 1 – 2, Pompey 54; Cato and Milo see Asconius on Cicero, pro Milonem 95, pp. 53 – 54, Velleius Paterculus 2. 47. 4, Cicero, ad Fam. 15. 4. 12.
6 Suetonius, Caesar 28. 2 – 3, Appian, BC 2. 25, Dio 40. 59. 1 – 4; on debate over the legion see Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 4. 4; for the debate on 29 September see 8. 8. 4 – 9; for a general discussion see M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 175 – 178, R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp. 140 – 143, J. Leach, Pompey (1978), pp. 150 – 172, esp. 161.
7 For the flogging of the magistrate see Suetonius, Caesar 28. 3, Appian, BC 2. 26, Plutarch, Caesar 29, Cicero, ad Att. 5. 11. 2; see Caelius’ quote from Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 8. 9.
8 Discussions of the terminal date of Caesar’s command see Seager (2002), pp. 191 – 193, T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Senior Statesman (1991), pp. 237 – 239, P. Cuff, ‘The Terminal Date of Caesar’s Gallic Command’, Historia 7 (1958), pp. 445 – 471, D. Stockton, ‘Quis iustius induit arma’, Historia 24 (1975), pp. 222 – 259, and in general E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp. 460 – 497.
9 Suetonius, Caesar 30. 3; for a discussion of Pompey’s attitude see Seager (2002), pp. 138 – 147.
10 On buying Curio and Paullus see Suetonius, Caesar 29. 1, Plutarch, Caesar 29, Pompey 58, Dio 40. 60. 2 – 3, Appian, BC 2. 26, Valerius Maximus 9. 1. 6, Velleius Paterculus 2. 48. 4; on revolving theatres see Pliny, NH 36. 177; on Caelius’ belief in Curio’s planned opposition to Caesar see Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 8. 10, moderated at 8. 10. 4.
11 Quotation from Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 11. 3; for the earlier debate see Velleius Paterculus 2. 48. 2 – 3, Plutarch, Pompey 57, Caesar 30, Cato the Younger 51, and Dio 40. 62. 3; for discussion see Seager (2002), p. 144, and Gelzer (1968), pp. 178 – 181.
12 Quotation from Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 14. 4; more generally see Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 13. 2, 8. 14, Appian, BC 2. 27 – 30, Plutarch, Caesar 29, Dio 40. 60, 1 – 66. 5.
13 Appian, BC 2. 28, with a slightly different version in Plutarch, Pompey 58, cf. Dio 60. 64. 1 – 4; on Cicero’s attitude see Mitchell (1991), pp. 243 – 248.
14 Cicero, ad Att. 7. 3. 4 – 5, 7. 4. 3, 7. 5. 5, 7. 6. 2, 7. 7. 5 – 6, ad Fam. 8. 14. 3; Mitchell (1991) pp. 232 – 248.
15 For Caesar’s attitude see especially Suetonius, Caesar 30. 2 – 5; on Gabinius see Seager (2002), pp. 128 – 130.
16 Lucan, Pharsalia 1. 25 – 26, and in general 1. 98 – 157; on censorship of Appius Claudius see Dio 40. 57. 2 – 3, 63. 2 – 64. 1.
17 Plutarch, Antony 2 – 5.
18 For Hirtius see Cicero, ad Att. 7. 4; Plutarch, Pompey 59, Caesar, BG 8. 52. 3, Dio 40. 64. 3 – 4, Appian, BC 2. 31.
19 Caesar, BC 1. 1 – 5, Plutarch, Pompey 59, Caesar 31, Suetonius, Caesar 29. 2, Appian, BC 2. 32; on Cicero’s involvement in negotiations see ad Fam. 16. 11. 2, ad Att. 8. 11d.
20 Caesar, BC 1. 5, Dio 41. 1. 1 – 3. 4, Appian, BC 2. 32 – 33, Cicero, ad Att. 7. 8, ad Fam. 16. 11. 3; on Antony vomiting his words see ad Fam. 12. 2.
21 Suetonius, Caesar 31 – 32, Plutarch, Caesar 32, Appian, BC 2. 35.
XVIII Blitzkrieg: Italy and Spain, Winter – Autumn, 49 BC
1 Cicero, ad Att. 7. 11.
2 Cicero, ad Att. 9. 7C.
3 Caesar, BC 1. 7 – 8, Appian, BC 2. 33, Suetonius, Caesar 33, Dio 41. 4. 1; on the centurions recommended by Pompey see Suetonius, Caesar 75. 1; on soldiers’ pay see Suetonius, Caesar 26. 3, and discussion of pay in G. Watson, The Roman Soldier (1969), pp. 89 – 92.
4 For Marcellus in R. Syme, Roman Revolution (1939), p. 62; Brutus see Plutarch, Brutus 4.
5 See Caesar, BG 8. 52, Cicero, ad Att. 7. 7. 6, 7. 12. 5, 7. 13. 1, ad Fam. 16. 12. 4, Dio 41. 4. 2 – 4, and R. Syme, ‘The Allegiance of Labienus,’ JRS 28 (1938), pp. 113 – 125, & W. Tyrell, ‘Labienus’ Departure from Caesar
in January 49 BC’, Historia 21 (1972), pp. 424 – 440.
6 Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 14. 3.
7 Caesar, BC 1. 6, Cicero, ad Fam. 16. 12. 3.
8 Cicero, ad Att. 7. 14.
9 Caesar, BC 1. 8 – 11, Dio 41. 5. 1 – 10. 2, Appian, BC 2. 36 – 37, Plutarch, Caesar 33 – 34, Pompey 60 – 61, Cato the Younger 52.
10 Caesar, BC 1. 12 – 15.
11 Caesar, BC 1. 16 – 23 and quote from 1. 23, cf. Dio 41. 2 – 11. 3; for the letters between Domitius and Pompey see Cicero, ad Att. 8. 11A, 12B, 12C, 12D.
12 Plutarch, Pompey 57, 60.
13 Caesar, BC 1. 24 – 29, Dio 41. 12. 1 – 3, Appian, BC 2. 38 – 40; for surveys of the beginning of the Civil War see M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 192 – 204, C. Meier, Caesar (1996), pp. 364 – 387, and R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp. 152 – 161.
14 Caesar, BC 1. 29 – 31, Cicero, ad Att. 7. 11. 3, 9. 1. 3, 11. 3, Appian, BC 2. 37; Suetonius, Caesar 34. 2 for the quote.
15 T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Senior Statesman (1991), pp. 243 – 266.
16 Cicero, ad Fam. 2. 15, 8. 11. 2, ad Att. 7. 1. 7, 2. 5 – 7, 3. 5, cf. Mitchell (1991), pp. 235 – 236.
17 Cicero, ad Att. 9. 6a; see also ad Att. 8. 13, 9. 13. 4, 15. 3, 16. 1 – 2, 9. 1. 2, 5. 4, 8. 1.
18 Cicero, ad Att. 9. 11a for Cicero’s letter of 19 March; 9. 16 for Caesar’s letter of 26 March; 9. 18 for the meeting.
19 Caesar, BC 1. 32 – 33, Dio 41. 15. 1 – 16. 4.
20 Caesar, BC 1. 32 – 33, Dio 41. 17. 1 – 3, Appian, BC 2. 41, Plutarch, Caesar 35, Pliny, NH 33. 56, Orosius 6. 15. 5.
21 See, for example, Cicero, ad Att. 10. 4. 8, ad Fam. 8. 16. 2 – 5.
22 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 59. 6, Pliny, NH 22. 11; Caesar, BC 1. 38 – 39.
23 Caesar, BC 1. 37, 39, Dio 41. 19. 1 – 4, Velleius Paterculus 2. 50. 3, Cicero, ad Att. 10. 8b.
24 For the quotation see Caesar, BC 1. 39; more generally see 1. 37 – 40.
25 Caesar, BC 1. 41 – 42.
26 Caesar, BC 1. 44 – 48.
27 Caesar, BC 1. 47 – 55, 59 – 61.
28 Caesar, BC 1. 61 – 65.
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