29 Caesar, BC 1. 66 – 76.
30 Caesar, BC 1. 77 – 87, for the siege of Massilia see 1. 56 – 58, 2. 1 – 16, 22, Varro 2. 17 – 21.
XIX Macedonia, November 49 – August 48 BC
1 Cicero, ad Fam. 9. 9.
2 Caesar, BC 3. 68.
3 Suetonius, Caesar 56. 4, 72, Cicero, ad Att. 9. 18; on the partisans of both sides see R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939), pp. 50 – 51, 61 – 77; for ‘what you need is a civil war’ see Suetonius, Caesar 27. 2; for the campaign in Sicily and Africa see Plutarch, Cato the Younger 53. 1 – 3, Caesar, BC 2. 23 – 44.
4 Appian, BC 2. 47, Dio 41. 26. 1 – 35. 5, Suetonius, Caesar 69.
5 Caesar, BC 3. 3 – 4, Plutarch, Pompey 63 – 64, Appian, BC 2. 40, 49 – 52.
6 Cicero, ad Att. 8. 11. 2, 9. 7, 9. 10. 2,10. 4, and for Cicero’s attitude see T. Michell, Cicero: The Senior Statesman (1991), pp. 252 – 266.
7 Cicero, ad Att. 9. 9. 3, for Servilius see CAH2 IX, p. 431, Dio 41. 36. 1 – 38. 3, Caesar, BC 3. 1 – 2, Plutarch, Caesar 37, Appian, BC 2. 48.
8 Caesar, BC 3. 2 – 8, Dio 41. 39. 1 – 40. 2, 44. 1 – 4, Appian, BC 2. 49 – 54, Plutarch, Caesar 37.
9 Caesar, BC 8 – 13, Appian, BC 2. 55 – 56.
10 Caesar, BC 3. 14; for death of Bibulus’ sons see BC 3. 110 and Valerius Maximus 4. 1. 15; for Cicero’s attitude to the Pompeians see Cicero, ad Fam. 7. 3. 2 – 3.
11 Caesar, BC 3. 15 – 17, 17 for the quote; on the properties of ancient warships see the very useful summary in B. Rankov, ‘The Second Punic War at Sea’ in T. Cornell, B. Rankov, & P. Sabin, The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal (London, 1996), pp. 49 – 57, as well as more generally J. Morrison & J. Coates, Greek and Roman Oared Warships (1996).
12 Caesar, BC 3. 19 for the meeting, 3. 18 for Bibulus’ death and Pompey’s comment; for the attempt to cross to Brundisium see Appian, BC 2. 50 – 59, Plutarch, Caesar 65, Dio 41. 46. 1 – 4.
13 Caesar, BC 3. 39 – 44, Dio 41. 47. 1 – 50. 4, Appian, BC 2. 58 – 60.
14 Caesar, BC 3. 45 – 49, Plutarch, Caesar 39, Appian, BC 2. 61.
15 Caesar, BC 3. 50 – 53; for Scaeva see Suetonius, Caesar 68. 3 – 4, Appian, BC 2. 60, Dio mentions a Scaevius who served with Caesar in Spain in 61 BC, Dio 38. 53. 3, and for the ala Scaevae CIL10. 6011 and comments in J. Spaul, ALA 2 (1994), pp. 20 – 21; on Sulla’s caution see A. Goldsworthy, ‘Instinctive Genius: The depiction of Caesar the General’, in K. Welch & A. Powell (eds.), Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter: The War Commentaries as Political Instruments (1998), pp. 193 – 219, esp. p. 205.
16 Caesar, BC 3. 54 – 58.
17 Caesar, BC 3. 59 – 61.
18 Caesar, BC 3. 61 – 65.
19 Caesar, BC 3. 66 – 70, quote from 69, Plutarch, Caesar 39, Appian, BC 2. 62.
20 Caesar, BC 3. 71 – 75, Appian, BC 2. 63 – 64, Dio 41. 51. 1.
21 Caesar BC 3. 77 – 81, Plutarch Caesar 41, Appian, BC 2. 63, Dio 41. 51. 4 – 5.
22 Caesar, BC 3. 72, 82 – 83, Cicero, ad Fam. 7. 3. 2; Plutarch, Cato the Younger 55, Pompey 40 – 41, Appian, BC 2. 65 – 67, Dio 41. 52. 1; in general for Pompey’s strategy and attitude see R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp. 157 – 163, 166 – 167.
23 Caesar, BC 3. 84 – 85, quotation from 85; Appian, BC 2. 68 – 69, Plutarch, Pompey 68, Caesar 42, Dio 41. 52. 2 – 57. 4.
24 Caesar, BC 3. 86 – 88, Appian, BC 2. 70 – 71, 76, Frontinus, Strategemata 2. 3. 22; for a discussion of formations in this period see A. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War 100 BC – AD 200 (1996), pp. 176 – 183.
25 Caesar, BC 3. 89.
26 Caesar, BC 3. 90 – 91, Dio 41. 58. 1 – 3, Appian, BC 2. 77 – 78, Plutarch, Pompey 71, Caesar 44.
27 For the battle and losses see Caesar, BC 3. 92 – 99, Appian, BC 2. 78 – 82, Plutarch, Caesar 42 – 47, and also Dio 41. 58. 1 – 63. 6 although he gives a vague, impressionistic account; Suetonius, Caesar 30. 4.
28 Caesar, BC 3. 102 – 104, Dio 42. 1. 1 – 5. 7, Plutarch, Pompey 72 – 80, Appian, BC 2. 83 – 86, Velleius Paterculus 2. 53. 3; and Seager (2002), pp. 167 – 168.
XX Cleopatra, Egypt and the East, Autumn 48 – Summer 47 BC
1 Suetonius, Caesar 52. 1.
2 Dio 42. 34. 3 – 5 (Loeb translation by E. Cary (1916), p.169).
3 Caesar, BC 3. 106, Plutarch, Caesar 48, Pompey 80, Dio 42. 6. 1 – 8. 3, Appian, BC 2. 86, 88; see also M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 246 – 247, and C. Meier, Caesar (1996), p. 406.
4 Caesar, BC 3. 106, Alexandrian War 17, 29, and 69.
5 On the wealth of Egypt and the impression it made on the Romans see Diodorus Siculus 28 b.3; on Egypt in this period see S. Walker & P. Higgs (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth (2001), especially the papers by A. Meadows, ‘The Sins of the Fathers: The Inheritance of Cleopatra, Last Queen of Egypt’, pp. 14 – 31, and J. Ray, ‘Alexandria’, pp. 32 – 37, and also S. Walker & S. Ashton, Cleopatra Reassessed (2003), esp. G. Grimm, ‘Alexandria in the Time of Cleopatra’, pp. 45 – 49.
6 See chapter 6; for Cleopatra’s possible visit to Italy see G. Gouldaux, ‘Cleopatra’s Subtle Religious Strategy’, in Walker & Higgs (2001), pp. 128 – 141, esp. 131 – 132.
7 On the history of the later Ptolemies see CAH2 IX, pp. 310 – 326, esp. 323; on the low level of the Nile see Pliny, NH 5. 58; for the story of Cnaeus Pompeius see Plutarch, Antony 25.
8 In general see M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), and for a useful survey E. Rice, Cleopatra (1999); for her skill with languages see Plutarch, Mark Antony 27; on her support for Egyptian cults see Goudchaux (2001), pp. 128 – 141, and Walker & Ashton (2003), esp. J. Ray, ‘Cleopatra in the Temples of Upper Egypt: The Evidence of Dendera and Armant’, pp. 9 – 11, and S. Ashton, ‘Cleopatra: Goddess, Ruler or Regent’, pp. 25 – 30, D. Thompson, ‘Cleopatra VII: The Queen of Egypt,’ pp. 31 – 34.
9 On her appearance see Plutarch, Mark Antony 27, Dio 42. 34. 3 – 5, and also Grant (1972), pp. 65 – 67, Rice (1999), pp. 95 – 102, Walker & Higgs (2001), esp. S. Walker, ‘Cleopatra’s Images: Reflections of Reality’, pp. 142 – 147, G. Goudchaux, ‘Was Cleopatra Beautiful? The Conflicting Answers of Numismatics’, pp. 210 – 214, and also in Walker & Ashton (2003), esp. S. Walker, ‘Cleopatra VII at the Louvre’, pp. 71 – 74, and F. Johansen, ‘Portraits of Cleopatra – Do They Exist?’, pp. 75 – 77.
10 See Ray (2001), Grimm (2003), pp. 45 – 49, and G. Goudchaux, ‘Cleopatra the Seafarer Queen: Strabo and India’, in Walker & Ashton (2003), pp. 109 – 112.
11 Caesar, BC 3. 106 – 112, Alexandrian War 1 – 3, Plutarch, Caesar 48, Appian, BC 2. 89.
12 Alexandrian War 4, Plutarch, Caesar 48 – 49, Dio 42. 34. 1 – 38. 2, 39. 1 – 2, Suetonius, Caesar 53. 1.
13 Alexandrian War 5 – 22, Plutarch, Caesar 49, Dio 42. 40. 1 – 6, Suetonius, Caesar 64, Appian, BC 2. 90.
14 Alexandrian War 23 – 32, Dio 42. 41. 1 – 43. 4, Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 14. 8. 12, Jewish War 1. 187 – 192.
15 Alexandrian War 33, Dio 42. 35. 4 – 6, 44. 1 – 45. 1, Suetonius, Caesar 52. 1, Appian, BC 90; for the bemused attitude of scholars to this cruise see Gelzer (1968), pp. 255 – 259 and also Meier (1995), pp. 408 – 410, 412.
16 For Caesar’s baldness see Suetonius, Caesar 45. 2.
17 Suetonius, Caesar 76. 3, Alexandrian War 33, Plutarch, Caesar 49.
18 Alexandrian War 34 – 41.
19 Alexandrian War 65 – 78, Dio 42. 45. 1 – 48. 4, Josephus, Jewish War 1. 190 – 195, Jewish Antiquities 14. 8. 3 – 5, Plutarch, Caesar 50, Suetonius, Caesar 35. 2, 37. 2.
XXI Africa, September 47 – June 46 BC
1 Cicero, ad Att. 11. 17a. 3.
2 Plutarch, Cato the Younger 66. 2 (Loeb translation by B. Perrin (1919), p. 397).
3 Dio 42. 17. 1 – 19. 4, 22. 1 – 25. 3, Caesar, BC 3. 20 – 22, Velleius Paterculus 2. 68. 1 – 3, Livy Pers. 111; for discussion of Caelius’ and Milo’s unsuccessful rebellion see T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic, 3 (1923), pp. 223 – 225, M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 227 – 228.
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sp; 4 Dio 42. 21. 1 – 2, 26. 1 – 28. 4, Plutarch, Antony 8 – 10, Cicero, Philippics 2. 56 – 63, and in general see Holmes (1923), pp. 226 – 229, Gelzer (1968), pp. 253 – 254; for book on drinking see Pliny, NH 14. 148; on lions see Pliny, NH 8. 21, Plutarch, Antony 9.
5 Appian, BC 2. 92, Dio 42. 29. 1 – 32. 3, Plutarch, Antony 9, Alexandrian War 65, African War 54, Cicero, ad Att. 11. 10. 2, Philippics 6. 11, 11. 14; on the rumour of Pompeian attack on Italy see Cicero, ad Att. 11. 18. 1, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 58.
6 Dio 42. 19. 2 – 20. 5, Plutarch, Brutus 6, and Cicero 39; and T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Senior Statesman (1991), pp. 264 – 265.
7 Appian, BC 2. 92 – 94, Dio 42. 52. 1 – 55. 3, Suetonius, Caesar 70, Plutarch, Caesar 51, Frontinus, Strategemata 1. 9. 4. In Dio’s version the troops were allowed into the city and the confrontation took place there rather than in a camp outside.
8 Dio 42. 49. 150. 5, Suetonius, Caesar 38. 2, 51. 2, Plutarch, Antony 10, Cicero, Philippics 2. 65, 71 – 73; and Gelzer (1968), p. 262, Holmes (1923), pp. 234 – 235.
9 Quote from African War 1; African War 60 for legion numbers; Suetonius, Caesar 59, Dio 42. 58. 3 for story of stumbling; for ignoring bad omens see Cicero, de Divinatione 2. 52, where he uses this for further evidence of the spurious nature of such predictions.
10 African War 1 – 3, 10 – 11, 19, 27, Appian, BC 2. 96.
11 African War 4 – 15.
12 African War 16.
13 African War 16 – 19, Dio 43. 2. 1 – 3, Appian, BC 2. 95, who implies that the Pompeians deliberately withdrew, and Holmes (1923), pp. 242 – 245, J. Fuller, Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier and Tyrant (1965), pp. 267 – 270; rallying the standard – bearer, Suetonius, Caesar 62, Plutarch, Caesar 52.
14 African War 20 – 21, 24 – 26, 28, 33 – 35, 44 – 46; on seaweed used as fodder see African War 24; on Scipio Salvito see Dio 42. 58. 1, Plutarch, Caesar 52, Suetonius, Caesar 59.
15 African War 24 – 43, quotation from 31.
16 African War 48 – 55, Suetonius, Caesar 66.
17 African War 56 – 67.
18 African War 68 – 80.
19 African War 82 – 83.
20 Plutarch, Caesar 53.
21 African War 81 – 86, 91, 94 – 6, Appian, BC 2. 100.
22 African War 87 – 90, 97 – 98, Dio 43. 10. 1 – 13. 4, Appian, BC 2. 98 – 99, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 56. 4, 59. 1 – 73. 1; on Queen Eunoe see Suetonius, Caesar 52. 1.
XXII Dictator, 46 – 44 BC
1 Cicero, ad Fam. 12. 18.
2 Velleius Paterculus, 2. 61. 1.
3 For accounts of the triumphs see Dio 43. 19. 1 – 21. 4, Appian, BC 2. 101 – 102, Plutarch, Caesar 55, Suetonius, Caesar 37, Pliny, NH 7. 92, Cicero, Philippics 14. 23; see also comments in M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 284 – 286, T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic, 3 (1923), pp. 279 – 281, and S. Weinstock, Divus Julius (1971), pp. 76 – 77, who suggests that the story of the chariot axle breaking was a confused version of Caesar’s superstitious mantra recited before travelling in a chariot, Pliny, NH 28. 21.
4 Suetonius, Caesar 49. 4.
5 Suetonius, Caesar 51, Dio 43. 20. 2 – 4.
6 For celebrations and games see Dio 43. 22. 1 – 24. 4, Appian, BC 2. 102, Suetonius, Caesar 38. 1, 39. 2, Plutarch, Caesar 55, Pliny, NH 8. 21 – 22, 181, Cicero, ad Fam. 12. 18. 2, Macrobius, Saturnalia 2. 7. 2 – 9, and also Gelzer (1968), pp. 285 – 287, Holmes (1923), pp. 280 – 282.
7 On behaviour at games see Suetonius, Augustus 45. 1; one of the most useful discussions of Caesar’s legislation can be found in Z. Yazetz, Julius Caesar and His Public Image (1983).
8 Caesar, BC 3. 57; for an introduction to the differing interpretations of Caesar see Yazetz (1983), pp. 10 – 57.
9 Dio 43. 50. 3 – 4, Suetonius, Caesar 42. 1, 81, Tiberius 4. 1, Plutarch, Caesar 57 – 58, Strabo, Geog. 8. 6. 23, 17. 3. 15, Appian, Punic History 136, Cicero, ad Fam. 9. 17. 2, 13. 4, 13. 5, 13. 8; also Yazetz (1983), pp. 137 – 149, E. Rawson, CAH2IX, pp. 445 – 480, and Holmes (1923), pp. 320 – 324.
10 Suetonius, Caesar 41. 2, 76. 2, 80. 3, Dio 43. 46. 2 – 4, Plutarch, Caesar 58, Pliny, NH 7. 181, Cicero, ad Fam. 7. 30. 1 – 2, Gelzer (1968), p. 309, 310 – 311, and Holmes (1923), pp. 328 – 330.
11 Cicero, ad Fam. 6. 18. 1, Philippics 11. 5. 12, 13. 13. 27, Dio 43. 47. 3, Suetonius, Caesar 76. 2 – 3, 80. 2; for a detailed discussion of the origins of Caesar’s senators see R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939), pp. 78 – 96.
12 On Sallust see Dio 43. 9. 2, 47. 4, Sallust, Bell. Cat. 3. 4, cf. Dio 43. 1. 3; on the refusal of a province to a follower see Dio 43. 47. 5, and Appian, BC 3. 89 for his cruelty.
13 Cicero, pro Marcello 3; cf. Titus Amplius Balbus, the ‘trumpet of the Civil War’ allowed back in November, Cicero, ad Fam. 6. 12. 3.
14 Suetonius, Caesar 42. 1, 44. 2.
15 Suetonius, Caesar 44. 2, Pliny, NH 18. 211, Plutarch, Caesar 59, Macrobius, Saturnalia 1. 14. 2 – 3, Holmes (1923), pp. 285 – 287, Gelzer (1969), p. 289, and Yazetz (1983), pp. 111 – 114.
16 Suetonius, Caesar 42. 1, 43. 1 – 2, Cicero, ad Att. 12. 35. 36. 1, 13. 6, 7, ad Fam. 7. 26, Dio 43. 25. 2, and Yazetz (1983), pp. 154 – 156 on sumptuary law; on the collegia see Suetonius, Caesar 42. 3, Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 14. 215 – 216, and Yazetz (1983), pp. 85 – 95.
17 Provincial law, Dio 43. 25. 3, and Cicero, Philippics 1. 8. 9 for approval; herders, Suetonius, Caesar 42. 1; on the municipia see discussion in Yazetz (1983), pp. 117 – 121.
18 Quotation from Cicero, ad Fam. 15. 19. 4; for Quintus Cassius in Spain see Alexandrian War 48 – 64, Spanish War 42, Appian, BC 2. 43, 103, Dio 43. 29. 1 – 31. 2, and Holmes (1923), pp. 293 – 295; the journey and the poem, Suetonius 56. 5, Strabo, Geog. 3. 4. 9, and Holmes (1923), p. 296.
19 Spanish War 2 – 27; for a more detailed discussion of the events of the war see Holmes (1923), pp. 297 – 306.
20 Spanish War 28 – 42, Appian, BC 2. 103 – 105, Plutarch, Caesar 56, Dio 43. 36. 1 – 41. 2, and Holmes (1923), pp. 306 – 308.
21 For honours see Dio 43. 42. 3, 44. 1 – 3; For Antony meeting Caesar see Plutarch, Antony 11; for Cicero’s daughter see Cicero, ad Att. 13. 20. 1, and T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Senior Statesman (1991), p. 282; for Pontius Aquila see Suetonius, Caesar 78. 2, see also R. Holmes, p. 318.
22 Dio 43. 14. 7, 44. 1 – 46. 2, Cicero, ad Att. 12. 47. 3, 45. 3, ad Fam. 6. 8. 1, 6. 18. 1, Suetonius, Caesar 76. 1, and see Holmes (1923), pp. 315 – 316, Gelzer (1968), pp. 307 – 308, Mitchell (1991), pp. 282ff.
23 Cicero, ad Att. 13. 40. 1.
24 Cicero, ad Att. 12. 21. 1, 13. 40. 1, 46, 51. 1, Orator 10, 35, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 11. 1 – 4, 25. 1 – 5, 73. 4, Cicero 39. 2, Caesar 3. 2, Suetonius, Caesar 56. 5, and Gelzer (1968), p. 301 – 304, Holmes (1923), p. 311, and D. Stockton, Cicero (1971), p. 138.
25 Cicero, ad Att. 12. 40. 2, 51. 2, 13. 2. 1, 27. 1, 28. 2 – 3, 40. 1.
XXVIII The Ides of March
1 Suetonius, Caesar 86. 1 – 2.
2 Cicero, pro Marcello 8, 25.
3 Dio 43. 51. 1 – 2, 44. 1. 1, Appian, BC 2. 110, 3. 77, Plutarch, Caesar 58, Velleius Paterculus 2. 59. 4, Suetonius, Caesar 44. 3, T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic, 3 (1923), pp. 326 – 327.
4 Cicero, ad Att. 13. 52 for the visit, 14. 1 for calling on him in Rome; for the view that Caesar’s character had changed profoundly, allegedly under the influence of Cleopatra see J. Collins, ‘Caesar and the Corruption of Power’, Historia 4 (1955), pp. 445 – 465.
5 Dio 43. 44. 1 – 45. 2, 44. 3. 1 – 6. 4, Suetonius, Caesar 76. 1; see also R. Carson, ‘Caesar and the Monarchy’, Greece and Rome 4 (1957), pp. 46 – 53, E. Rawson, ‘Caesar’s heritage: Hellenistic kings and their Roman equals’, Journal of Roman Studies 65 (1975), pp. 148 – 159, S. Weinstock, Divus Julius (1971), esp. pp. 200 – 206; for the New Testament accounts of Jesus being questioned over taxation see Matthew 22. 17 – 21, Mark 12. 14 – 17, for the famous ‘Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s’.
6 Dio 43. 14. 6 – 7,
44. 6. 1, 5 – 6, Appian, BC 2. 106, Weinstock (1971), pp. 241 – 243, 276 – 286, 305 – 310.
7 Dio 44. 5. 3 – 7. 1, Cicero, Philippics 2. 43. 1; on Vespasian’s last words see Suetonius, Vespasian 23; on the later imperial cult see S. Price, Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor (1984).
8 Suetonius, Caesar 44. 2, Dio 43. 2, 44. 6. 1 – 3, Cicero, de Divinatione 1. 119, 2. 37; see also Weinstock (1971), pp. 271 – 3; on Cleopatra’s visit see Dio 43. 27. 3, Appian, BC 2. 102; Suetonius, Caesar 52. 1 claims that Caesar summoned her, but falsely states that she left during his lifetime; Cicero’s visit, ad Att. 15. 2; see also M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp. 83 – 94, and E. Rice, Cleopatra (1999), pp. 41 – 44.
9 Suetonius, Caesar 52. 2, Plutarch, Caesar 49; however, note also Plutarch, Antony 52, which suggests that the boy was not born until after Caesar’s death; for discussions see Grant (1972), pp. 83 – 85.
10 Suetonius, Caesar 83. 1 – 2, Augustus 8. 1 – 2, Appian, BC 2. 143, Pliny, NH 35. 21, Plutarch, Antony 11.
11 Plutarch, Caesar 61, Antony 12, Suetonius, Caesar 79. 1 – 2, Appian, BC 2. 108, Dio 44. 9. 2 – 10. 3, Cicero, Philippics 13. 31, Velleius Paterculus 2. 68. 4 – 5, Valerius Maximus 5. 7. 2.
12 Dio 44. 11. 1 – 3, Appian, BC 2. 109, Plutarch, Caesar 61, Antony 12, Cicero, Philippics 2. 84 – 87, de Divinatione 1. 52, 119, Suetonius, Caesar 79. 2; see also Weinstock (1971), pp. 318 – 341.
13 Bodyguard, see Dio 44. 7. 4, Suetonius, Caesar 84. 2, 86. 1 – 2, Appian, BC 2. 107; on justice and juries see Suetonius, Caesar 41. 2, 53. 1.
14 Dio 44. 8. 1 – 4, Plutarch, Caesar 60, Suetonius, Caesar 78. 1; see also the comments in Weinstock (1971), p. 276, M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), p. 317, Rice Holmes (1923), pp. 333 – 334.
15 See R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939), p. 64, 95, for Galba, and also Suetonius, Galba 3; for Decimus Brutus being mentioned in Caesar’s will see Suetonius, Caesar 83. 2, and also Dio 44. 14. 3 – 4; for Basilus see Dio 43. 47. 3, Appian, BC 3. 98; for Trebonius and Antony see Plutarch, Antony 13.
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