Zoobiquity

  46 In 1985, the USDA: Jodie A. Kulpa-Eddy, Sylvia Taylor, and Kristina M. Adams, “USDA Perspective on Environmental Enrichment for Animals,” Institute for Laboratory Animal Research Journal 46 (2005): pp. 83–94.

  47 When the coyote handler: Hilda Tresz, Linda Ambrose, Holly Halsch, and Annette Hearsh, “Providing Enrichment at No Cost,” The Shape of Enrichment: A Quarterly Source of Ideas for Environmental and Behavioral Enrichment 6 (1997): pp. 1–4.

  48 Trainers give horses: McDonnell, “Practical Review,” pp. 219–28.

  49 Some therapists counsel: Deb Martinsen, “Ways to Help Yourself Right Now,” American Self-Harm Information Clearinghouse, accessed December 20, 2011. http://www.selfinjury.org/docs/selfhelp.htm.

  50 A survey comparing: John P. Robinson and Steven Martin, “What Do Happy People Do?” Social Indicators Research 89 (2008): pp. 565–71.

  NINE Fear of Feeding

  1 strikes 1 in 200: H. W. Hoek, “Incidence, Prevalence and Mortality of Anorexia Nervosa and Other Eating Disorders,” Current Opinion in Psychiatry 19 (2006): pp. 389–94.

  2 It’s surprisingly lethal: Joanna Steinglass, Anne Marie Albano, H. Blair Simpson, Kenneth Carpenter, Janet Schebendach, and Evelyn Attia, “Fear of Food as a Treatment Target: Exposure and Response Prevention for Anorexia Nervosa in an Open Series,” International Journal of Eating Disorders (2011), accessed March 3, 2012. doi: 10.1002/eat.20936.

  3 Bulimia nervosa: James I. Hudson, Eva Hiripi, Harrison G. Pope, Jr., and Ronald C. Kessler, “The Prevalence and Correlates of Eating Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication,” Biological Psychiatry 61 (2007): pp. 348–58.

  4 the World Health Organization has: W. Stewart Agras, The Oxford Handbook of Eating Disorders, New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

  5 In the two decades: Ibid.

  6 Because disordered eating: Ibid.

  7 Anxiety disorders are frequently: Walter H. Kaye, Cynthia M. Bulik, Laura Thornton, Nicole Barbarich, Kim Masters, and Price Foundation Collaborative Group, “Comorbidity of Anxiety Disorders with Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa,” The American Journal of Psychiatry 161 (2004): pp. 2215–21.

  8 They report enjoying: Agras, The Oxford Handbook.

  9 scientists at Yale built: Dror Hawlena and Oswald J. Schmitz, “Herbivore Physiological Response to Predation Risk and Implications for Ecosystem Nutrient Dynamics,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (2010): pp. 15503–7; Emma Marris, “How Stress Shapes Ecosystems,” Nature News, September 21, 2010, accessed August 25, 2011. http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100921/full/news.2010.479.html.

  10 When stressed out: Dror Hawlena, telephone interview, September 29, 2010.

  11 The threat of predation: Dror Hawlena and Oswald J. Schmitz, “Physiological Stress as a Fundamental Mechanism Linking Predation to Ecosystem Functioning,” American Naturalist 176 (2010): pp. 537–56.

  12 Psychiatrists studying eating disorders: Marian L. Fitzgibbon and Lisa R. Blackman, “Binge Eating Disorder and Bulimia Nervosa: Differences in the Quality and Quantity of Binge Eating Episodes,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 (2000): pp. 238–43.

  13 In a study of gerbils: Tim Caro, Antipredator Defenses in Birds and Mammals, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.

  14 Another study, on rodents: Ibid.

  15 Scorpions have shown a similar aversion: Ibid.

  16 It’s known that light: Masaki Yamatsuji, Tatsuhisa Yamashita, Ichiro Arii, Chiaki Taga, Noaki Tatara, and Kenji Fukui, “Season Variations in Eating Disorder Subtypes in Japan,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 33 (2003): pp. 71–77.

  17 “with its large carnivores gone”: David Baron, The Beast in the Garden: A Modern Parable of Man and Nature, New York: Norton, 2004: p. 19.

  18 For fifty years: Scott Creel, John Winnie Jr., Bruce Maxwell, Ken Hamlin, and Michael Creel, “Elk Alter Habitat Selection as an Antipredator Response to Wolves,” Ecology 86 (2005): pp. 3387–97; John W. Laundre, Lucina Hernandez, and Kelly B. Altendorf, “Wolves, Elk, and Bison: Reestablishing the ‘landscape of fear’ in Yellowstone National Park, U.S.A.,” Canadian Journal of Zoology 79 (2001): pp. 1401–9; Geoffrey C. Trussell, Patrick J. Ewanchuk, and Mark D. Bertness, “Trait-Mediated Effects in Rocky Intertidal Food Chains: Predator Risk Cues Alter Prey Feeding Rates,” Ecology 84 (2003): pp. 629–40; Aaron J. Wirsing and Willilam J. Ripple, “Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment: A Comparison of Shark and Wolf Research Reveals Similar Behavioral Responses by Prey,” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment (2010). doi: 10.1980/090226.

  19 beyond squirrels pushing nuts: Stephen B. Vander Wall, Food Hoarding in Animals, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.

  20 Some moles create worm farms: Ibid.

  21 For example, food hoarding is often: Mark D. Simms, Howard Dubowitz, and Moira A. Szilagyi, “Health Care Needs of Children in the Foster Care System,” Pediatrics 105 (2000): pp. 909–18.

  22 Compulsive hoarding: Alberto Pertusa, Miguel A. Fullana, Satwant Singh, Pino Alonso, Jose M. Mechon, and David Mataix-Cols. “Compulsive Hoarding: OCD Symptom, Distinct Clinical Syndrome, or Both?” American Journal of Psychiatry 165 (2008): pp. 1289–98.

  23 OCD is linked: Walter H. Kaye, Cynthia M. Bulik, Laura Thornton, Nicole Barbarich, Kim Masters, and Price Foundation Collaborative Group, “Comorbidity of Anxiety Disorders with Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa,” American Journal of Psychiatry 161 (2004): pp. 2215–21.

  24 “the affected animals restrict”: Janet Treasure and John B. Owen, “Intriguing Links Between Animal Behavior and Anorexia Nervosa,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 21 (1997): p. 307.

  25 “spend more time on nonnutritive”: Ibid.

  26 “pigs, especially those”: Ibid.

  27 “led to the uncovering of recessive”: Ibid., p. 308.

  28 “an analogous genetic basis”: Ibid.

  29 Studies of twins and generations: Ibid., pp. 307–11.

  30 “People with anorexia nervosa”: Michael Strober interview, Los Angeles, CA, February 2, 2010.

  31 It strikes most often during: Treasure and Owen, “Intriguing Links,” pp. 307–11.

  32 Weaning is a vulnerable: Ibid.; S. C. Kyriakis, and G. Andersson, “Wasting Pig Syndrome (WPS) in Weaners—Treatment with Amperozide,” Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 12 (1989): pp. 232–36.

  33 Farmers keep an eye out: Treasure and Owen, “Intriguing Links,” p. 308.

  34 Connecting fearful states to eating: Treasure and Owen, “Intriguing Links,” pp. 307–11; “Thin Sow Syndrome,” ThePigSite.com, accessed September 10, 2010. http://www.thepigsite.com/pighealth/article/212/thin-sow-syndrome.

  35 “There is no treatment”: “Diseases: Thin Sow Syndrome,” PigProgress.Net, accessed December 19, 2011. http://www.pigprogress.net/diseases/thin-sow-syndrome-d89.html.

  36 Farmers advise making sure: “Thin Sow Syndrome”; “Diseases: Thin Sow Syndrome.”

  37 Similarly, rodent researchers found that warmer: Robert A. Boakes, “Self-Starvation in the Rat: Running Versus Eating,” Spanish Journal of Psychology 10 (2007): p. 256.

  38 Pig farmers also recommend: “Thin Sow Syndrome”; Treasure and Owen, “Intriguing Links,” p. 308.

  39 Some eating disorders, say psychiatrists: Christian S. Crandall, “Social Cognition of Binge Eating,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 (1988): pp. 588–98.

  40 Today’s aspiring bulimics and anorexics: Beverly Gonzalez, Emilia Huerta-Sanchez, Angela Ortiz-Nieves, Terannie Vazquez-Alvarez, and Christopher Kribs-Zaleta, “Am I Too Fat? Bulimia as an Epidemic,” Journal of Mathematical Psychology 47 (2003): pp. 515–26; “Tips and Advice.” Thinspiration, accessed September 14, 2010. http://mytaintedlife.wetpaint.com/page/Tips+and+Advice.

  41 Images of skeletal celebrities: “Tips and Advice,” Thinspiration.

  42 “the voluntary, retrograde movement”: Kristen E. Lukas, Gloria Hamor, Mollie A. Bloomsmith, Charles L. Horton, and Terry L. Maple, “
Removing Milk from Captive Gorilla Diets: The Impact on Regurgitation and Reingestion (R/R) and Other Behaviors,” Zoo Biology 18 (1999): p. 516.

  43 An affected gorilla: Ibid., pp. 515–28.

  44 “might be socially enhanced”: Ibid., p. 526.

  45 R and R is widely believed not: Ibid., p. 516.

  46 The black vultures in McKinney: Sheryl Smith-Rodgers, “Scary Scavengers,” Texas Parks and Wildlife, October 2005, accessed November 9, 2010. http://www.tpwmagazine.com/archive/2005/oct/legend/.

  47 Some caterpillars, too: Jacqualine Bonnie Grant, “Diversification of Gut Morphology in Caterpillars Is Associated with Defensive Behavior,” Journal of Experimental Biology 209 (2006): pp. 3018–24.

  48 some animals defecate: Caro, Antipredator Defenses.

  TEN The Koala and the Clap

  1 When monster wildfires scorched: Fox News, “Scorched Koala Rescued from Australia’s Wildfire Wasteland,” February 10, 2009, accessed August 25, 2011. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,490566,00.html.

  2 But six months later: ABC News, “Sam the Bushfire Koala Dies,” August 7, 2009, accessed August 25, 2011. http://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-08-06/sam-the-bushfire-koala-dies/1381672.

  3 Technically, the disease: Robin M. Bush and Karin D. E. Everett, “Molecular Evolution of the Chlamydiaceae,” International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 51 (2001): pp. 203–20; L. Pospisil and J. Canderle, “Chlamydia (Chlamydiophila) pneumoniae in Animals: A Review,” Veterinary Medicine—Czech 49 (2004): pp. 129–34.

  4 An international survey of physicians: Dag Album and Steinar Westin, “Do Diseases Have a Prestige Hierarchy? A Survey Among Physicians and Medical Students,” Social Science and Medicine 66 (2008): p. 182.

  5 Among biologists, the handful of professional: Rob Knell, telephone interview, October 21, 2009.

  6 HIV/AIDS is the world’s: World Health Organization, “Global Health Risks: Mortality and Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risks,” 2009, accessed September 30, 2011. http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GlobalHealthRisks_report_full.pdf.

  7 Consider the following: Ann B. Lockhart, Peter H. Thrall, and Janis Antonovics, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Animals: Ecological and Evolutionary Implications,” Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 71 (1996): pp. 415–71.

  8 Sexually spread brucellosis, leptospirosis, and trichomoniasis: G. Smith and A. P. Dobson, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Animals,” Parasitology Today 8 (1992): pp. 159–66.

  9 Pig litters can be decimated: Ibid., p. 161.

  10 Venereal diseases in farmed geese: Ibid.

  11 Contagious equine metritis so predictably: APHIS Veterinary Services, “Contagious Equine Metritis,” last modified June 2005, accessed August 25, 2011. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/publications/animal_health/content/printable_version/fs_ahcem.pdf.

  12 Dog STDs can cause abortions: Smith and Dobson, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases,” p. 161.

  13 Dungeness crabs, for example, are vulnerable: Ibid., p. 163.

  14 Two-dot ladybugs: Knell interview.

  15 A postcoital housefly that lands: Lockhart, Thrall, and Antonovics, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases,” p. 422.

  16 Astonishingly, some of the diseases: Ibid., p. 432; Robert J. Knell and K. Mary Webberley, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases of Insects: Distribution, Evolution, Ecology and Host Behaviour,” Biological Review 79 (2004): pp. 557–81.

  17 Indeed, STDs have been found thriving: Lockhart, Thrall, and Antonovics, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases,” pp. 418, 423.

  18 For example, rabbit syphilis: Smith and Dobson, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases,” p. 163.

  19 These nasty bacteria cause spontaneous: University of Wisconsin–Madison School of Veterinary Medicine, “Brucellosis,” accessed October 5, 2010. http://www.vetmed.wisc.edu/pbs/zoonoses/brucellosis/brucellosisindex.html.

  20 Cattle, pigs, and dogs transmit it: J. D. Oriel and A. H. S. Hayward, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Animals,” British Journal of Venereal Diseases 50 (1974): p. 412.

  21 brucellosis is a major public health concern: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Brucellosis,” accessed September 15, 2011. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/brucellosis_g.htm.

  22 (In developed countries, it has become mercifully rare): Ibid.

  23 zookeepers in Japan: International Society for Infectious Diseases, “Brucellosis, Zoo Animals, Human—Japan,” last modified June 25, 2001, accessed August 25, 2010. http://www.promedmail.org/pls/otn/f?p=2400:1001:16761574736063971049::::F2400_P1001_BACK_PAGE,F2400_P1001_ARCHIVE_NUMBER,F2400_P1001_USE_ARCHIVE:1202,20010625.1203,Y.

  24 And although they’re rare: Ibid.

  25 Nowadays, “trich” is: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Diseases Characterized by Vaginal Discharge,” Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines, 2010, accessed September 15, 2011. http://www.cdc.gov/std/treatment/2010/vaginal-discharge.htm.

  26 But contemporary T. vag: Jane M. Carlton, Robert P. Hirt, Joana C. Silva, Arthur L. Delcher, Michael Schatz, Qi Zhao, Jennifer R. Wortman, et al., “Draft Genome Sequence of the Sexually Transmitted Pathogen Trichomonas vaginalis,” Science 315 (2007): pp. 207–12.

  27 Ancient, ancestral T. vaginalis resided: Ibid.

  28 T. tenax, for example, thrives: Ibid.

  29 T. foetus causes chronic diarrhea: H. D. Stockdale, M. D. Givens, C. C. Dykstra, and B. L. Blagburn, “Tritrichomonas foetus Infections in Surveyed Pet Cats,” Veterinary Parasitology 160 (2009): pp. 13–17; Lynette B. Corbeil, “Use of an Animal Model of Trichomoniasis as a Basis for Understanding This Disease in Women,” Clinical Infectious Diseases 21 (1999): pp. S158–61.

  30 T. gallinae (or its close cousin): Ewan D. S. Wolff, Steven W. Salisbury, John R. Horner, and David J. Varricchio, “Common Avian Infection Plagued the Tyrant Dinosaurs,” PLoS One 4 (2009): p. e7288.

  31 Recent research on Sue: Ibid.

  32 For example, several hundred years ago: Kristin N. Harper, Paolo S. Ocampo, Bret M. Steiner, Robert W. George, Michael S. Silverman, Shelly Bolotin, Allan Pillay, et al., “On the Origin of the Treponematoses: A Phylogenetic Approach,” PLoS Neglected Tropical Disease 2 (2008): p. e148.

  33 Before it discovered its current preference: Ibid.

  34 Sex and mother’s milk: Beatrice H. Hahn, George M. Shaw, Kevin M. De Cock, and Paul M. Sharp, “AIDS as a Zoonosis: Scientific and Public Health Implications,” Science 28 (2000): pp. 607–14; A. M. Amedee, N. Lacour, and M. Ratterree, “Mother-to-infant transmission of SIV via breast-feeding in rhesus macaques,” Journal of Medical Primatology 32 (2003): pp. 187–93.

  35 The theory is that, by eating the meat: Martine Peeters, Valerie Courgnaud, Bernadette Abela, Philippe Auzel, Xavier Pourrut, Frederic Bilollet-Ruche, Severin Loul, et al., “Risk to Human Health from a Plethora of Simian Immunodeficiency Viruses in Primate Bushmeat,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 8 (2002): pp. 451–57.

  36 Hydrophobia, or fear of water: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Rabies,” accessed September 15, 2011. http://www.cdc.gov/rabies/.

  37 Or take Toxoplasma gondii: Ajai Vyas, Seon-Kyeong Kim, Nicholas Giacomini, John C. Boothroyd, and Robert M. Sapolsky, “Behavioral Changes Induced by Toxoplasma Infection of Rodents Are Highly Specific to Aversion of Cat Odors,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (2007): pp. 6442–47.

  38 Humans are “dead-end” hosts for toxo: Ibid.; J. P. Dubey, “Toxoplasma gondii,” in Medical Microbiology, 4th ed., ed. S. Baron, chapter 84. Galveston: University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 1996.

  39 Exposure to toxo: Vyas et al., “Behavioral Changes,” p. 6446.

  40 other parasites have been shown: Frederic Libersat, Antonia Delago, and Ram Gal, “Manipulation of Host Behavior by Parasitic Insects and Insect Parasites,” Annual Review of Entomology 54 (2009): pp. 189–207; Amir H. Grosman, Arne Janssen, Elaine F. de Brito, Eduardo G. Cordeiro, Felipe Colares, Juliana Olive
ira Fonseca, Eraldo R. Lima, et al., “Parasitoid Increases Survival of Its Pupae by Inducing Hosts to Fight Predators,” PLoS One 3 (2008): p. e2276.

  41 Male Gryllodes sigillatus crickets: Marlene Zuk, and Leigh W. Simmons, “Reproductive Strategies of the Crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae),” in The Evolution of Mating Systems in Insects and Arachnids, ed. Jae C. Choe and Bernard J. Crespi, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp. 89–109.

  42 When infected with the sexually transmitted: Knell and Webberley, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases of Insects,” p. 574.

  43 Male swamp milkweed beetles infected: Ibid., pp. 573–74.

  44 The white campion flower: Peter H. Thrall, Arjen Biere, and Janis Antonovics, “Plant Life-History and Disease Suspectibility: The Occurrence of Ustilago violacea on Different Species Within the Caryophyllaceae,” Journal of Ecology 81 (1993): pp. 489–90.

  45 A Duke University botanical disease ecologist: Lockhart, Thrall, and Antonovics, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases,” p. 423.

  46 A similar “strategy”: Smith and Dobson, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases,” pp. 159–60.

  47 Intriguingly, scientists and veterinarians report anecdotally: Knell interview.

  48 (The increasing incidence of STDs in people over fifty): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Persons Aged 50 and Older: Prevention Challenges,” accessed September 29, 2011. http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/over50/challenges.htm.

  49 An STD of deer: Colorado Division of Wildlife, “Wildlife Research Report—Mammals—July 2005,” accessed October 11, 2011. http://wildlife.state.co.us/Site CollectionDocuments/DOW/Research/Mammals/Publications/2004–2005WILDLIFERESEARCHREPORT.pdf.

  50 When Brucella abortus causes a cow: Oriel and Hayward, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Animals,” p. 414.

  51 It’s called cloacal pecking: B. C. Sheldon, “Sexually Transmitted Disease in Birds: Occurrence and Evolutionary Significance,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 339 (1993): pp. 493, 496; N. B. Davies, “Polyandry, Cloaca-Pecking and Sperm Competition in Dunnocks,” Nature 302 (1983): pp. 334–36.