Zoobiquity

  52 Cloacal pecking may aid: Ibid.

  53 Rats that are prevented: Sheldon, “Sexually Transmitted Disease in Birds,” p. 493.

  54 Many birds preen: Ibid.

  55 In humans, genital scrubbing: Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.

  56 A study of Cape ground squirrels: J. Waterman, “The Adaptive Function of Masturbation in a Promiscuous African Ground Squirrel,” PLoS One 5 (2010): p. e13060.

  57 A recent study showed that simply: Mark Schaller, Gregory E. Miller, Will M. Gervais, Sarah Yager, and Edith Chen, “Mere Visual Perception of Other People’s Disease Symptoms Facilitates a More Aggressive Immune Response,” Psychological Science 21 (2010): 649–52.

  58 For example, in males: Matt Ridley, The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature, New York: Harper Perennial, 1993.

  59 David Strachan was pondering: David P. Strachan, “Hay Fever, Hygiene and Household Size,” British Medical Journal 299 (1989): pp. 1259–60.

  60 A few years later, a German scientist: PBS, “Hygiene Hypothesis,” accessed October 4, 2011. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/10/4/l_104_07.html.

  61 Most animals have multiple sexual partners: Ridley, The Red Queen.

  62 “There is no imperative”: Janis Antonovics telephone interview, September 30, 2009.

  63 Timms, along with his colleagues at the Queensland: Peter Timms telephone interview, October 5, 2009.

  64 This is why, although HIV: Randy Dotinga, “Genetic HIV Resistance Deciphered,” Wired.com, January 7, 2005, accessed November 9, 2010. http://www.wired.com/medtech/health/news/2005/01/66198#ixzz13JfSSBIj.

  65 A dramatic recent example: Mark Schoofs, “A Doctor, a Mutation and a Potential Cure for AIDS,” Wall Street Journal, November 7, 2008, accessed October 11, 2011. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122602394113507555.html.

  ELEVEN Leaving the Nest

  1 You will not spot female: Tim Tinker telephone interview, July 28, 2011.

  2 Parental provisioning: T. H. Clutton-Brock, The Evolution of Parental Care, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991.

  3 In other animals: Kate E. Evans and Stephen Harris, “Adolescence in Male African Elephants, Loxodonta africana, and the Importance of Sociality,” Animal Behaviour 76 (2008): pp. 779–87; “Life Cycle of a Housefly,” accessed October 10, 2011. http://www.vtaide.com/png/housefly.htm.

  4 For zebra finches: Tim Ruploh e-mail correspondence, August 5, 2011.

  5 In vervet monkeys: Lynn Fairbanks interview, Los Angeles, CA, May 3, 2011.

  6 Even lowly, single-celled: Marine Biological Laboratory, The Biological Bulletin, vols. 11–12. Charleston: Nabu Press, 2010: p. 234.

  7 “Adolescent medicine”: Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine, “Overview,” accessed October 12, 2011. http://www.adolescenthealth.org/Overview/2264.htm.

  8 once children have survived infancy: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Worktable 310: Deaths by Single Years of Age, Race, and Sex, United States, 2007,” last modified April 22, 2010, accessed October 14, 2011. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/dvs/MortFinal2007_Worktable310.pdf.

  9 The Centers for Disease Control: Arialdi M. Minino, “Mortality Among Teenagers Aged 12–19 Years: United States, 1999–2006,” NCHS Data Brief 37 (May 2010), accessed October 14, 2011. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db37.pdf.

  10 At about age twenty-five: Melonie Heron, “Deaths: Leading Causes for 2007,” National Vital Statistics Reports 59 (2011), accessed October 14, 2011. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr59/nvsr59_08.pdf.

  11 Young [animals] suffer: Tim Caro, Antipredator Defenses in Birds and Mammals, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005: p. 15.

  12 Since they can’t run as fast: Maritxell Genovart, Nieves Negre, Giacomo Tavecchia, Ana Bistuer, Luís Parpal, and Daniel Oro, “The Young, the Weak and the Sick: Evidence of Natural Selection by Predation,” PLoS One 5 (2010): p. e9774; Sarah M. Durant, Marcella Kelly, and Tim M. Caro, “Factors Affecting Life and Death in Serengeti Cheetahs: Environment, Age, and Sociality,” Behavioral Ecology 15 (2004): pp. 11–22; Caro, Antipredator Defenses, p. 15.

  13 What kills adolescents disproportionately: Margie Peden, Kayode Oyegbite, Joan Ozanne-Smith, Adnan A. Hyder, Christine Branche, AKM Fazlur Rahman, Frederick Rivara, and Kidist Bartolomeos, “World Report on Child Injury Prevention,” Geneva: World Health Organization, 2008.

  14 The CDC reports that 35 percent: Minino, “Mortality Among Teenagers,” p. 2.

  15 According to the World Health Organization: Peden et al., “World Report.”

  16 In some parts of the world: World Health Organization, “Global Health Risks: Mortality and Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risks,” 2009, accessed September 30, 2011. http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/Global.HealthRisks_report_full.pdf.

  17 And a scarlet rectangle: Chris Megerian, “N.J. Officials Unveil Red License Decals for Young Drivers Under Kyleigh’s Law,” New Jersey Real-Time News, March 24, 2010, accessed October 10, 2011. http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2010/03/nj_officials_decide_how_to_imp.html.

  18 But extensive, new neurological research: Linda Spear, The Behavioral Neuroscience of Adolescence, New York: Norton, 2010; Linda Van Leijenhorst, Kiki Zanole, Catharina S. Van Meel, P. Michael Westenberg, Serge A. R. B. Rombouts, and Eveline A. Crone, “What Motivates the Adolescent? Brain Regions Mediating Reward Sensitivity Across Adolescence,” Cerebral Cortex 20 (2010): pp. 61–69; Laurence Steinberg, “The Social Neuroscience Perspective on Adolescent Risk-Taking,” Developmental Review 28 (2008): pp. 78–106; Laurence Steinberg, “Risk Taking in Adolescence: What Changes, and Why?” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1021 (2004): pp. 51–58; Stephanie Burnett, Nadege Bault, Girgia Coricelli, and Sarah-Jayne Blakemore, “Adolescents’ Heightened Risk-Seeking in a Probabilistic Gambling Task,” Cognitive Development 25 (2010): pp. 183–96; Linda Patia Spear, “Neurobehavioral Changes in Adolescence,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 9 (2000): pp. 111–14; Cheryl L. Sisk, “The Neural Basis of Puberty and Adolescence,” Nature Neuroscience 7 (2004): pp. 1040–47; Linda Patia Spear, “The Biology of Adolescence,” last updated February 2, 2010, accessed October 10, 2011.

  19 Researchers from Rome’s Istituto: Giovanni Laviola, Simone Macrì, Sara Morley-Fletcher, and Walter Adriani, “Risk-Taking Behavior in Adolescent Mice: Psychobiological Determinants an Early Epigenetic Influence,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 27 (2003): pp. 19–31.

  20 Adolescent rats display: Kirstie H. Stansfield, Rex M. Philpot, and Cheryl L. Kirstein, “An Animal Model of Sensation Seeking: The Adolescent Rat,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1021 (2004): pp. 453–58.

  21 Similarly, when primatologists: Lynn A. Fairbanks, “Individual Differences in Response to a Stranger: Social Impulsivity as a Dimension of Temperament in Vervet Monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus), Journal of Comparative Psychology 115 (2001): pp. 22–28; Fairbanks interview.

  22 Preadult zebra finches: Ruploh e-mail correspondence.

  23 Transitioning sea otters: Tinker interview; Gena Bentall interview, Moss Landing, CA, August 4, 2011.

  24 “Young animals may approach and inspect”: Caro, Antipredator Defenses, p. 20.

  25 For example, instead of hiding: Clare D. Fitzgibbon, “Anti-predator Strategies of Immature Thomson’s Gazelles: Hiding and the Prone Response,” Animal Behaviour 40 (1990): pp. 846–55.

  26 “Mobbing is a way to impress”: Judy Stamps telephone interview, August 4, 2011.

  27 Looking-away responses: N. J. Emery, “The Eyes Have It: The Neuroethology, Function and Evolution of Social Gaze,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 24 (2000): pp. 581–604.

  28 House sparrows: Carter et al., “Subtle Cues,” pp. 1709–15.

  29 Studies of humans: Emery, “The Eyes Have It,” pp. 581–604.

  30 As they test their danger-detectio
n skills: Caro, Antipredator Defenses.

  31 Vervet monkeys make: Fairbanks interview; Lynn A. Fairbanks, Matthew J. Jorgensen, Adriana Huff, Karin Blau, Yung-Yu Hung, and J. John Mann, “Adolescent Impulsivity Predicts Adult Dominance Attainment in Male Vervet Monkeys,” American Journal of Primatology 64 (2004): pp. 1–17.

  32 She told me that: Fairbanks interview.

  33 “the idea that an age-limited increase”: Fairbanks et al., “Adolescent Impulsivity.”

  34 “age-specific behavioral characteristics”: Spear, “Neurobehavioral Changes.”

  35 “are deeply embedded”: Spear, “The Biology of Adolescence.”

  36 Adolescent African elephants: Kate E. Evans and Stephen Harris, “Adolescence in Male African Elephants, Loxodonta africana, and the Importance of Sociality,” Animal Behaviour 76 (2008): pp. 779–87.

  37 These groups of young male: Ibid.

  38 Gena Bentall has cataloged: Bentall interview.

  39 Male wild horses: Claudia Feh, “Social Organisation of Horses and Other Equids,” Havemeyer Equine Behavior Lab, accessed April 15, 2010. http://research.vet.upenn.edu/HavemeyerEquineBehaviorLabHomePage/ReferenceLibraryHavemeyer EquineBehaviorLab/HavemeyerWorkshops/HorseBehaviorandWelfare1316June 2002/HorseBehaviorandWelfare2/RelationshipsandCommunicationinSocially Natura/tabid/3119/Default.aspx.

  40 Female wild horses: Ibid.

  41 Evans and Harris spotted: Evans and Harris, “Adolescence.”

  42 Notorious periods: Ibid.

  43 For California condors: Michael Clark interview, Los Angeles, CA, July 21, 2011.

  44 As Michael Clark: Ibid.

  45 “Lord of the Flies situation”: Ibid.

  46 Thanks to the Los Angeles Zoo: Ibid.

  47 As Alan Kazdin, a professor: Alan Kazdin telephone interview, July 26, 2011.

  48 “Having peers around”: Alan Kazdin and Carlo Rotella, “No Breaks! Risk and the Adolescent Brain,” Slate, February 4, 2010, accessed October 10, 2011. http://www.slate.com/articles/life/family/2010/02/no_brakes_2.html.

  49 Zebra finches, too: Ruploh e-mail correspondence.

  50 Ancient adolescents also formed groups: David J. Varricchio, Paul C. Sereno, Zhao Xijin, Tan Lin, Jeffery A. Wilson, and Gabrielle H. Lyon, “Mud-Trapped Herd Captures Evidence of Distinctive Dinosaur Sociality,” Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 53 (2008): pp. 567–78.

  51 Pink salmon, too, grow: Jean-Guy J. Godin, “Behavior of Juvenile Pink Salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha Walbaum) Toward Novel Prey: Influence of Ontogeny and Experience, Environmental Biology of Fishes 3 (1978): pp. 261–66.

  52 Susan Perry notes in Manipulative Monkeys: Susan Perry, with Joseph H. Manson, Manipulative Monkeys: The Capuchins of Lomas Barbudal, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008: p. 51.

  53 “extremely high social intelligence” and “great interpersonal skills”: Susan Perry telephone interview, May 12, 2011.

  54 She followed one monkey: Ibid.

  55 “Delinquency and criminal behavior”: Laurence Steinberg, The 10 Basic Principles of Good Parenting, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004; Laurence Steinberg and Kathryn C. Monahan, “Age Differences in Resistance to Peer Influence,” Developmental Psychology 43 (2007): pp. 1531–43.

  56 In September 2010, six teens: LGBTQNation, “Two More Gay Teen Suicide Victims—Raymond Chase, Cody Barker—Mark 6 Deaths in September,” October 1, 2010, accessed October 10, 2011. http://www.lgbtqnation.com/2010/10/two-more-gay-teen-suicide-victims-raymond-chase-cody-barker-mark-6-deaths-in-september/.

  57 Their deaths were added: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Suicide Prevention: Youth Suicide,” accessed October 14, 2011. http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pub/youth_suicide.html.

  58 But recent research suggests: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Stop Bullying Now!, “Children Who Bully,” accessed October 14, 2011. http://stopbullying.gov/community/tip_sheets/children_who_bully.pdf.

  59 The Oxford zoologist T. H. Clutton-Brock: T. H. Clutton-Brock and G. A. Parker, “Punishment in Animal Societies,” Nature 373 (1995): pp. 209–16.

  60 That a propensity to bully: Martina S. Müller, Elaine T. Porter, Jacquelyn K. Grace, Jill A. Awkerman, Kevin T. Birchler, Alex R. Gunderson, Eric G. Schneider, et al., “Maltreated Nestlings Exhibit Correlated Maltreatment As Adults: Evidence of A ‘Cycle of Violence,’ in Nazca Boobies (Sula Granti),” The Auk 128 (2011): pp. 615–19.

  61 The parents of Kloss’s gibbons: Clutton-Brock, The Evolution of Parental Care.

  62 Three-toed sloth mothers: Ibid.

  63 Early exposure to alcohol: Linda Spear, “Modeling Adolescent Development and Alcohol Use in Animals,” Alcohol Res Health 24 (2000): pp. 115–23.

  64 “You will be a disgrace”: Charles Darwin, “The Autobiography of Charles Darwin,” The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online, accessed October 13, 2011. http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype-text&pageseq=1.

  65 “My father, who was the kindest man”: Darwin, “The Autobiography.”

  TWELVE Zoobiquity

  1 When crows by the hundreds: Tracey McNamara interview, Pomona, CA, May 2009; George V. Ludwig, Paul P. Calle, Joseph A. Mangiafico, Bonnie L. Raphael, Denise K. Danner, Julie A. Hile, Tracy L. Clippinger, et al., “An Outbreak of West Nile Virus in a New York City Captive Wildlife Population,” American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 67 (2002): pp. 67–75; Robert G. McLean, Sonya R. Ubico, Douglas E. Docherty, Wallace R. Hansen, Louis Sileo, and Tracey S. McNamara, “West Nile Virus Transmission and Ecology in Birds,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 951 (2001): pp. 54–57; K. E. Steele, M. J. Linn, R. J. Schoepp, N. Komar, T. W. Geisbert, R. M. Manduca, P. P. Calle, et al., “Pathology of Fatal West Nile Virus Infections in Native and Exotic Birds During the 1999 Outbreak in New York City, New York,” Veterinary Pathology 37 (2000): pp. 208–24; Peter P. Marra, Sean Griffing, Carolee Caffrey, A. Marm Kilpatrick, Robert McLean, Christopher Brand, Emi Saito, et al., “West Nile Virus and Wildlife,” BioScience 54 (2004): pp. 393–402; Caree Vander Linden, “USAMRIID Supports West Nile Virus Investigations,” accessed October 11, 2011. http://www.dcmilitary.com/dcmilitary_archives/stories/100500/2027-1.shtml; Rosalie T. Trevejo and Millicent Eidson, “West Nile Virus,” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 232 (2008): pp. 1302–09.

  2 “If you see encephalitis”: American Museum of Natural History, “West Nile Fever: A Medical Detective Story,” accessed October 10, 2011. http://www.amnh.org/sciencebulletins/biobulletin/biobulletin/story1378.html.

  3 “I had barrels full of dead birds”: McNamara interview.

  4 “hair stand on end”: Ibid.

  5 “That’s when it clicked”: Ibid.

  6 Within forty-eight hours: Linden, “USAMRIID.”

  7 “best of what science can be”: McNamara interview.

  8 In the years since it first emerged: James J. Sejvar, “The Long-Term Outcomes of Human West Nile Virus Infection,” Emerging Infections 44 (2007): pp. 1617–24; Douglas J. Lanska, “West Nile Virus,” last modified January 28, 2011, accessed October 13, 2011. http://www.medlink.com/medlinkcontent.asp.

  9 In a report to Congress: United States General Accounting Office, “West Nile Virus Outbreak: Lessons for Public Health Preparedness,” Report to Congressional Requesters, September 2000, accessed October 10, 2011. http://www.gao.gov/new.items/he00180.pdf.

  10 “The veterinary medicine community”: Ibid.

  11 Other groups in the United States: Donald L. Noah, Don L. Noah, and Harvey R. Crowder, “Biological Terrorism Against Animals and Humans: A Brief Review and Primer for Action,” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 221 (2002): pp. 40–43; Wildlife Disease News Digest, accessed October 10, 2011. http://wdin.blogspot.com/.

  12 The Canary Database: Canary Database, “Animals as Sentinels of Human Environmental Health Hazards,” accessed October 10, 2011. http://canarydatabase.org/.

  13 The U.S. Agenc
y for International Development: USAID press release, “USAID Launches Emerging Pandemic Threats Program,” October 21, 2009.

  14 Jonna Mazet: University of California, Davis, “UC Davis Leads Attack on Deadly New Diseases,” UC Davis News and Information, October 23, 2009, accessed on October 10, 2011. http://www.news.ucdavis.edu/search/news_detail.lasso?id=9259.

  15 The program brings together: USAID spokesperson, March 19, 2012.

  16 “We don’t know what diseases”: Jonna Mazet interviewed on Capital Public Radio, by Insight host Jeffrey Callison, October 26, 2009. http://www.facebook.com/video/video.php?v=162741314486.

  17 “Over $200 billion”: Marguerite Pappaioanou address to the University of California, Davis Wildlife and Aquatic Animal Medicine Symposium, February 12, 2011, Davis, CA.

  18 Recently a third-year veterinary student: One Health, One Medicine Foundation, “Health Clinics,” accessed October 10, 2011. http://www.onehealthonemedicine.org/Health_Clinics.php.

  19 A program at Tufts: North Grafton, “Dogs and Kids with Common Bond of Heart Disease to Meet at Cummings School,” Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, April 22, 2009, accessed October 10, 2011. http://www.tufts.edu/vet/pr/20090422.html.

  20 Similarly, Winter, the dolphin: Clearwater Marine Aquarium, “Maja Kazazic,” accessed October 10, 2011. http://www.seewinter.com/winter/winters-friends/maja.

  21 In fact, swine flu: Matthew Scotch, John S. Brownstein, Sally Vegso, Deron Galusha, and Peter Rabinowitz, “Human vs. Animal Outbreaks of the 2009 Swine-Origin H1N1 Influenza A Epidemic,” EcoHealth (2011): doi: 10/1007/s10393-011-0706-x.

  22 The E. coli–tainted fresh baby spinach: Michele T. Jay, Michael Cooley, Diana Carychao, Gerald W. Wiscomb, Richard A. Sweitzer, Leta Crawford-Miksza, Jeff A. Farrar, et al., “Escherichia coli O157:H7 in Feral Swine Near Spinach Fields and Cattle, Central California Coast,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 13 (2007): pp. 1908–11; Michele T. Jay and Gerald W. Wiscomb, “Food Safety Risks and Mitigation Strategies for Feral Swine (Sus scrofa) Near Agriculture Fields,” in Proceedings of the Twenty-third Vertebrate Pest Conference, edited by R. M. Timm and M. B. Madon. University of California, Davis, 2008.