Women in the Ottoman Balkans: Gender, Culture and History
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7
Women, Fashion, and Europeanization:
The Romanian Principalities, 1750–1830
Angela Jianu
Le vêtement, plus qu’aucun élément de la culture matérielle,
incorpore les valeurs de l’imaginaire social et les normes de la
réalité vécue; c’est le champ de bataille obligé de la confrontation
entre le changement et la tradition.
Daniel Roche, Histoire des choses banales
The history of dress and fashion in western Europe has, in recent years, become
an important chapter in social history.1 The way people dress—located at
the intersection of necessity, aesthetics, seduction, frivolity, ethnic-political
allegiances, and economics—is nowadays a legitimate vehicle for the study of
mentalities, as well as of the rise and demise of régimes and societies.
In this essay, I examine clothes, fashions, and consumption as interfaces
between cultures, as systems of signs and symbols which can encourage imitation
or prompt rejection, or can serve as identity-building tools. The travel literature of
the period shows how insistently, throughout the eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries, western and eastern Europe looked at each other’s clothes, even literally
fingered them, trying to fathom what exactly appearances might reveal or conceal
in terms of human character, social attitudes, political allegiances, and cultural
determinations. The basic opposition at the heart of all these exercises in sartorial
reading was broadly between “European” (i.e. West European) fashion on the one
hand, and “Oriental” fashion on the other—that is, for the purposes of the present
discus
sion, the dress worn in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries
in the Near East, the Balkans, and the East European dominions of the Sublime
Porte. Focusing on the shifts in fashion and consumption in the Romanian
Principalities between roughly 1780 and 1850,2 I have tried to reconstruct, from a
number of very different sources, West European perceptions of Romanians in the
period, as well as the ways in which Romanians used clothes, fashion accessories,
fashionable household items, and luxury imports in order to construct individual
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Women in the ottoman Balkans
and collective identities in terms of their own perceptions of “Europe” and
“European-ness.”
I refer to the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia (the future Romania) as
they were politically and diplomatically constituted until their unification in 1859
and their transformation into the Kingdom of Romania in 1866. In their relentless
push north-westwards, the Ottomans attempted to conquer the Principalities as
early as the fourteenth century, but either failed to transform them into paşalık s
proper or chose simply to include them in their sphere of economic and political
influence.3 By the fifteenth century, Wallachia and Moldavia had become
Ottoman dominions, controlled according to the strategy of dar al-‘ahd (“abode
of the covenant”) which guaranteed their autonomy in exchange for a régime
of material obligations.4 Under this arrangement, the Principalities retained their
own administration, political structures, religion, and, until the eighteenth century,
their native princes.5 However, the Prince increasingly became—especially
from the seventeenth century onwards—a top civil servant in the Ottoman state
hierarchy, while continuing to pose as a sovereign by divine right at home.
After 1659, when the Ottomans suppressed revolts in both Principalities, and
especially after the peace of Karlowits (1699) and Charles XII’s defeat by Peter
the Great at Poltava (1709), the Porte realized that its control over Moldavia and
Wallachia was going to be challenged by the emerging eastern powers Austria and
Russia, and decided to appoint devoted rulers selected from the exclusive circle
of Greek families residing in the area of Constantinople called Phanar (Fener).6
In a relatively short time, a permanent link was established between the office