The Sediments of Time

by Meave Leakey

  Coghlan, J. “With grandmothers came civilisation.” New Scientist, July 10, 2004, 14.

  Coqueugniot, H.; Hublin, J.; Veillon, F.; Houët, F.; and Jacob, T. “Early brain growth in Homo erectus and implications for cognitive ability.” Nature 431 (2004): 299–302.

  Dean, C., et al. “Growth processes in teeth distinguish modern humans from Homo erectus and earlier hominins.” Nature 414 (2001): 628–31.

  Goodall, J. The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns and Behaviour. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986.

  Hawkes, K.; O’Connell, J. F.; Blurton-Jones, N. G.; Alvarez, H.; and Charnov, E. L. “Grandmothering, menopause, and the evolution of human life histories.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95 (1998): 1336–39.

  Huffman, O. F., et al. “Relocation of the 1936 Mojokerto skull discovery site near Perning, East Java.” Journal of Human Evolution 50 (2006): 431–51.

  Jablonski, N. G.; Whitfort, M. J.; Roberts-Smith, N.; and Quinqi, X. “The influence of life history and diet on the distribution of catarrhine primates during the Pleistocene in eastern Asia.” Journal of Human Evolution 39 (2000): 131–57.

  Lacruz, R. S., and Bromage, T. “Appositional enamel growth in molars of South African fossil hominids.” Journal of Anatomy 209 (2006): 13–20.

  Lacruz, R. S.; Rozzi, F. R.; and Bromage, T. “Variation in enamel development of South African fossil hominids.” Journal of Human Evolution 51 (2006): 580–90.

  Morwood, M. J., et al. “Revised age for Mojokerto 1, an early Homo erectus cranium from East Java, Indonesia.” Australian Archaeology 57 (2003): 1–4.

  O’Connell, J. F.; Hawkes, K.; and Blurton-Jones, N. G. “Grandmothering and the evolution of Homo erectus.” Journal of Human Evolution 36 (1999): 461–85.

  Rosenberg, K. “Living longer: information revolution, population expansion, and modern human origins.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101 (2004): 10847–48.

  Rosenberg, K. R., and Trevathan, W. R. “The evolution of human birth.” Scientific American 13 (2003): 80–85.

  Smith, H. “Dental development in Australopithecus and early Homo.” Nature 323 (1986): 327–30.

  Smith, H. “Patterns of dental development in Homo, Australopithecus, Pan and Gorilla.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 94 (1994): 307–25.

  Smith, S. L. “Skeletal age, dental age and the maturation of KNM-WT 15000.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 125 (2004): 105–20.

  Walker, A., and Leakey, R. E, eds. The Nariokotome Homo erectus Skeleton. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.

  Walker A., and Shipman, P. Wisdom of the Bones: In Search of Human Origins. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996.

  CHAPTER 14: GROWING BRAINS

  Acredolo, L., and Goodwyn, S. Baby Signs: How to Talk with Your Baby Before Your Baby Can Talk. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 2002.

  Aiello, L., and Dean, C. An Introduction to Human Evolutionary Anatomy. London: Academic Press, 1990.

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  Bramble, D. M., and Lieberman, D. E. “Endurance running and the evolution of Homo.” Nature 432 (2004): 345–52.

  Cole, S. Leakey’s Luck: The Life of Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey, 1903–1972. London: Collins, 1975.

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  Leakey, L. S. B. Lecture, Yale University, October 1971.

  Leonard, W. R. “Food for thought. Dietary change was a driving force in human evolution.” Scientific American 13 (2003): 62–71.

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  McNutt, J., and Boggs, L. Running Wild: Dispelling the Myths of the African Wild Dog. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books, 1997.

  Milton, K. “Diet and primate evolution.” Scientific American 16 (2006): 22–29.

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  Turner, A., and Anton, M. The Big Cats and Their Fossil Relatives. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997.

  Walker, A., and Leakey, R. E., eds. The Nariokotome Homo erectus Skeleton. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.

  Walker, A., and Shipman P. Wisdom of the Bones: In Search of Human Origins. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996.

  CHAPTER 15: THE ICEHOUSE

  Bowen, M. Thin Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of Climate in the World’s Highest Mountains. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 2005.

  Campisano, C. J. “Milankovitch cycles, paleoclimatic change, and hominin evolution.” Nature Education Knowledge 4 (2012): 5.

  Flannery, T. The Weather Makers. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2005.

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  Lepre, C. J.; Quinn, R. L.; Joordens, J. C. A.; Swisher III, C. C.; and Feibel, C. S. “Plio-Pleistocene facies environments from the KBS Member, Koobi Fora Formation: implications for climate controls on the development of lake margin hominin habitats in the northeast Turkana Basin (northwest Kenya).” Journal of Human Evolution 53 (2007): 504–14.

  Macdougall, D. Frozen Earth: The Once and Future Story of Ice Ages. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004.

  Maslin, M. A., and Christensen, B. “Tectonics, orbital forcing, global climate change, and human evolution in Africa: introduction to the African paleoclimate special volume.” Journal of Human Evolution 53 (2007): 443–64.

  McDougall, I.; Brown, F. H.; and Fleagle, J. G. “Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia.” Nature 433 (2005): 733–36.

  Turner, A., and Anton, M. The Big Cats and Their Fossil Relatives. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997.

  Vrba, E. S.; Denton, G. H.; Partridge, T. C.; and Burkle, L. H. Palaeoclimate and Evolution, with Emphasis on Human Origins. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995.

  Ward, P., and Brownlee, D. The Life and Death of Planet Earth: How the New Science of Astrobiology Charts the Ultimate Fate of Our World. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 2003.

  Zachos, J.; Pagani, M.; Sloan, L.; Thomas, E.; and Billups, K. “Trends, Rhythms and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present.” Science 292 (2001): 686–93.

  CHAPTER 16: THE FIRST EXPLORERS

  Antón, S. C. “Developmental age and taxonomic affinity of the Mojokerto child, Java, Indonesia.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 102 (1997): 497–514.

  Antón, S. C. “Natural history of Homo erectus.” Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 46 (2003): 126–70.

  Antón, S. C.; Leonard, W. R.; and Robertson, M. L. “An ecomorphological model of the initial hominid dispersal from Africa.” Journal of Human Evolution 43 (2002): 773–85.

  Balter, M. “Skeptics question whether Flores hominid is a new species.” Science 306 (2004): 1116.

  Bar-Yosef, O., and Belfer-Cohen, A. “From Africa to Eurasia—early dispersals.” Quarternary International 75 (2001): 19–28.

  Bobe, R., and Behrensmeyer, A. K. “The expansion of grassland ecosystems in Africa in relation to mammalian evolution and the origin of the genus Homo.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 207 (2004): 399–420.

  Bobe, R.; Behrensmeyer, A. K.; and Chapman, R. E. “Faunal change, environmental variability and late Pliocene hominin evolution.” Journal of Human Evolution 42 (2002): 475–97.

  Bobe, R.; Behrensmeyer, A. K.; Eck, G. G.; and Harris, J. M. “Patterns of Abundance and Diversity on Late Cenozoic Bovids from the Turkana and Hadar Basins, K
enya and Ethiopia.” In Hominin Environments in the East African Pliocene: An Assessment of the Faunal Evidence, edited by Bobe, R.; Alemseged, Z.; and Behrensmeyer, A. K., 129–58. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2007.

  Bobe, R., and Eck, G. G. “Responses of African bovids to Pliocene climatic change.” Palaeobiology Memoirs 27 (2001): 1–47.

  Brown, F. “Some Considerations on Early Movements Out of Africa.” Lecture, Human Evolution Symposium “Out of Africa,” Stony Brook University.

  Brown, P., et al. “A new small-bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia.” Nature 431 (2004): 1055–61.

  Bunn, H. T. “The Bone Assemblages from the Excavated Sites.” In Koobi Fora Research Project Vol. 5: Plio-Pleistocene Archaeology, edited by Isaac, G. L., and Isaac, B., 402–44. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.

  Burroughs, W. J. Climate Change in Prehistory: The End of the Reign of Chaos. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

  Culotta, E. “When Hobbits (slowly) walked the earth.” Science 320 (2008): 433–35.

  Dalton, R. “Hobbit was ‘a cretin.’ ” Nature 452 (2008), doi.org/10.1038/news.2008.643.

  Falk, D., et al. “The brain of LB1, Homo floresiensis.” Science 308 (2005): 242–45.

  Flannery, T. The Weather Makers. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2005.

  Gabunia, L.; Antón, S. C.; Vekua, A.; Justus, A.; and Swisher III, C. C. “Dmanisi and dispersal.” Evolutionary Anthropology 10 (2001): 158–70.

  Gabunia, L., and Vekua, A. “The environmental contexts of early human occupation of Georgia (Transcaucasia).” Journal of Human Evolution 38 (2000): 785–802.

  Gabunia, L., et al. “Earliest Pleistocene hominid cranial remains from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia: taxonomy, geological setting, and age.” Science 288 (2000): 1019–25.

  Gibbons, A. “A new body of evidence fleshes out Homo erectus.” Science 317 (2007): 1664.

  Gibert, J.; Gibert, L.; Ferrandez-Canyadell, A.; and Gonzales F. “Venta Micena, Barranco León-5 and Fuenteneuva-3. Three Archeological Sites in the Early Pleistocene Deposits of Orce, Southeast Spain.” In The Human Evolution Source Book, edited by Ciochon, R. C., and Fleagle, J. G., 327–35. New York: Routledge, 2006.

  Hoberg, E. P.; Alkire, N. L.; De Queiroz, A.; and Jones, A. “Out of Africa: origins of the Taenia tapeworms in humans.” Proceedings of the Royal Society London B 268 (2001): 781–87.

  Holmes, R. “Hobbit hand waives away doubters.” New Scientist 195 (2007): 14.

  Jashasvili, T., et al. “Postcranial evidence from early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia.” Nature 449 (2007): 305–10.

  Larson, S. G. “Evolutionary transformation of the human shoulder.” Evolutionary Anthropology 16 (2007): 172–87.

  Larson, S. G., et al. “Homo floresiensis and the evolution of the hominin shoulder.” Journal of Human Evolution 53 (2008): 718–31.

  Leakey, L. “Body weight estimation of Bovidae and Plio-Pleistocene faunal change, Turkana Basin, Kenya.” PhD diss., University College London, 2001.

  Leakey, M. D. “List of identified faunal remains from known stratigraphic horizons in Beds I and II.” Appendix B in Excavations in Beds I &II 1960–1963 by Leakey, M. D. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971.

  Leonard, W. R. “Food for thought. Dietary change was a driving force in human evolution.” Scientific American 13 (2003): 62–71.

  Lewis, M. E., and Werdelin, L. “Patterns of Change in the Plio-Pleistocene Carnivorans of Eastern Africa: Implications for Hominin Evolution.” In Hominin Environments in the East African Pliocene: An Assessment of the Faunal Evidence, edited by Bobe, R.; Alemseged, Z.; and Behrensmeyer, A. K., 77–105. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2007.

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  Mirazón Lahr, M. “Saharan Corridors and Their Role in the Evolutionary Geography of ‘Out of Africa 1.’ ” In Out of Africa 1: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia, edited by Fleagle, J.; Shea, J.; Grine, F.; Baden, A.; and Leakey, R. E. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2010.

  Mirazón Lahr, M., and Foley, R. “Human evolution writ small.” Nature 431 (2004): 1043–44.

  Morwood, M. J.; O’Sullivan, P. B.; Aziz, F.; and Raza, A. “Fission-track ages of stone tools and fossils on the east Indonesian island of Flores.” Nature 392 (1998): 173–76.

  Morwood, M. J., et al. “Archaeology and age of a new hominin from Flores in eastern Indonesia.” Nature 431 (2004): 1087–91.

  Obendorf, P. J.; Oxnard, C. E.; and Kefford, B. J. “Are the small human-like fossils found on Flores human endemic cretins?” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences (2008): 1287–96.

  Sahnouni, M., et al. “Further research at the Olduvai site of Aïn Hanech, northeastern Algeria.” Journal of Human Evolution 43 (2002): 925–37.

  Shipman, P.; Bosler, W.; and Davis, K. L. “Butchering of giant gelada at an Acheulian site.” Current Anthropology 22 (1981): 257–68.

  Stanford, C. B.; Allen, J. S.; and Antón, S. C. Biological Anthropology. Boston: Pearson, 2006.

  Stringer, C., and McKie, R. African Exodus: The Origins of Modern Humanity. London: Jonathan Cape, 1997.

  Sutikna, T., et al. “Revised stratigraphy and chronology for Homo floresiensis at Liang Bua in Indonesia.” Nature 532 (2016): 366–69.

  Swisher III, C. C., et al. “Age of the earliest known hominids in Java, Indonesia.” Science 263 (1994): 1118–21.

  Swisher III, C. C., et al. “Latest Homo erectus in Java: potential contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in Southeast Asia.” Science 274 (1996): 1870–74.

  Templeton, A. R. “Out of Africa again and again.” Nature 416 (2002): 45–51.

  Tocheri, M. W., et al. “The primitive wrist of Homo floresiensis and its implications for hominin evolution.” Science 317 (2007): 1743–45.

  Van der Bergh, G. D., et al. “Homo floresiensis-like fossils from the early Middle Pleistocene of Flores.” Nature 534 (2016): 245–48.

  Vekua, A., et al. “A new skull of early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia.” Science 297 (2002): 85–89.

  Vrba, E. S.; Denton, G. H.; Partridge, T. C.; and Burkle, L. H. Palaeoclimate and Evolution, with Emphasis on Human Origins. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995.

  Walker, A., and Shipman, P. Wisdom of the Bones: In Search of Human Origins. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996.

  Werdelin, L., and Lewis, M. E. “Plio-Pleistocene Carnivora of eastern Africa: species richness and turnover patterns.” Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 144 (2005): 121–44.

  Wong, K. “The littlest human.” Scientific American 292, February 2005, 40–49.

  Wong, K. “Stranger in a new land.” Scientific American 16, June 2006, 38–47.

  Wynn, J. G. “Influence of Plio-Pleistocene aridification on human evolution: evidence from paleosols of the Turkana Basin, Kenya.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 123 (2004): 106–18.

  Zachos, J.; Pagani, M.; Sloan, L.; Thomas, E.; and Billups, K. “Trends, rhythms and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present.” Science 292 (2001): 686–93.

  Zhu, R. X., et al. “Earliest human in northeast Asia.” Nature 413 (2001): 413–17.

  Zhu, R. X., et al. “New evidence on the earliest human presence at high northern latitudes in northeast Asia.” Nature 431 (2004): 559–62.

  CHAPTER 17: A VERY GOOD HOMININ

  Antón, S. C. “Developmental age and taxonomic affinity of the Mojokerto child, Java, Indonesia.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 102 (1997): 497–514.

  Antón, S. C. “Evolutionary significance of cranial variation in Asian Homo erectus.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118 (2002): 301–23.

  Gabunia, L., et al. “Dmanisi and dispersal.” Evolutionary Anthropology 10 (2001): 158–70.

  Gabunia, L., et al. “Earliest Pleistocene hominid cranial remains from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia: taxonomy, geological setting, and age.” Science 288 (2000): 1019–25.

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  Leakey, R. E. “Further evidence of Lower Pleistocene hominids from East Rudolf, North Kenya.” Nature 237 (1972): 264–69.

  Leakey, R. E. One Life: An Autobiography. Topsfield, MA: Salem House Publishers, 1984.

  Marquez, S.; Mowbray, K.; Sawyer, G. J.; Jacob, T.; and Silvers, A. “New fossil hominid calvaria from Indonesia—Sambungmacan 3.” The Anatomical Record 262 (2001): 344–68.

  Spoor, F., et al. “Implications of new early Homo fossils from Ileret, east of Lake Turkana, Kenya.” Nature 448 (2007): 688–91.

  Stanford, C. B.; Allen, J. S.; and Antón, S. C. Biological Anthropology. Boston: Pearson, 2006.

  Swisher III, C. C., et al. “Age of the earliest known hominids in Java, Indonesia.” Science 263 (1994): 1118–21.

  Swisher III, C. C., et al. “Latest Homo erectus in Java: potential contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in Southeast Asia.” Science 274 (1996): 1870–74.

  Vekua, A., et al. “A new skull of early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia.” Science 297 (2002): 85–89.

  Walker, A., and Shipman, P. Wisdom of the Bones: In Search of Human Origins. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996.

  CHAPTER 18: THROUGH THICK AND THIN

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  Asfaw, B., et al. “Remains of Homo erectus from Bouri, Middle Awash, Ethiopia.” Nature 416 (2002): 317–20.

  Bowen, M. Thin Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of Climate in the World’s Highest Mountains. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 2005.

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