The most useful source for Afghani’s life is Nikki Keddie, Sayyid Jamal al-Din “al-Afghani”: A Political Biography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972).
For late pre-modern Islamic education, see Dale F. Eickelman, “The Art of Memory: Islamic Education and its Social Reproduction,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 20 (1978), pp. 485–516.
For Risalat al-waridat, see Oliver Scharbrodt, “The Salafiyya and Sufism: Muhammad ‘Abduh and his Risalat al-waridat (Treatise on mystical inspirations),” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2007), pp. 89–115.
CHAPTER 2
For the events and personalities of these years, see F. Robert Hunter, Egypt under the Khedives, 1805–1879: From Household Government to Modern Bureaucracy (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1984), and Arthur Goldschmidt, Biographical Dictionary of Modern Egypt (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2000).
Accessible primary sources include Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, Secret History of the English Occupation of Egypt: Being a Personal Narrative of Events (1907; new edition, New York: H. Fertig, 1967), and his Gordon at Khartoum: Being a Personal Narrative of Events in Continuation of a Secret History of the English Occupation of Egypt (London: Swift, 1911), as well as Alexander Meyrick Broadley, How we Defended Arábi and his Friends: A Story of Egypt and the Egyptians (1884; new edition Cairo: RAPAC, 1980).
For Guizot, see Larry Siedentop’s long and excellent introduction to François Guizot, The History of Civilization in Europe (1864; trans. William Hazlitt, London: Penguin Books, 1997), and of course Guizot’s own book.
For freemasonry, see A. Albert Kudsi-Zadeh, “Afghani and Freemasonry in Egypt,”Journal of the American Oriental Society 92 (1972), pp. 25–35, Karim Wissa, “Freemasonry in Egypt 1798–1921:A Study in Cultural and Political Encounters,”Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 16, no. 2 (1989), pp. 143–61, and Matthew Scanlan, “Freemasonry Serving Egypt,”Freemasonry Today 31 (Winter 2005), p. 31.
For the press, see Ami Ayalon, The Press in the Arab Middle East: A History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), and A. Albert Kudsi-Zadeh, “The Emergence of Political Journalism in Egypt,” The Muslim World 70 (1980), pp. 47–55.
See also the sources for Muhammad Abduh given in the notes on further reading for Chapter One.
CHAPTER 3
For Cairo, see Elie Kedourie, Afghani and ‘Abduh: An Essay on Religious Unbelief and Political Activism in Modern Islam (London: Cass, 1966). See also two sources already suggested in the notes on further reading for Chapter Two: Broadley, How we Defended Arábi, and Blunt, Secret History.
For Al-Waqa’i al-misriyya, see Malcolm H. Kerr, Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966).
For the Damascus Salafis, see Itzchak Weismann, “Between Sufi Reformism and Modernist Rationalism:A Reappraisal of the Origins of the Salafiyya from the Damascene Angle,” Die Welt des Islams 41 (2001), pp. 206–37.
For Beirut, see Jens Hanssen, Fin de siècle Beirut: The Making of an Ottoman Provincial Capital (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).
CHAPTER 4
For events in Paris, see the source for Afghani suggested in the notes on further reading for Chapter One, Keddie, Sayyid Jamal al-Din. See also Blunt, Gordon at Khartoum, already suggested in the notes for Chapter Two.
For the reception of Al-Urwa al-wuthqa in India, see Aziz Ahmad, “Afghani’s Indian Contacts,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 89 (1969), p. 482.
CHAPTER 5
The best source for the basic narrative of these years is Uthman Amin, Muhammad Abduh, already suggested in the notes for Chapter One. Also useful are Keddie, Sayyid Jamal al-Din, already suggested in the notes for Chapter One, and Hanssen, Fin de siècle Beirut, in the notes for Chapter Three.
For the text of Risalat al-tawhid, the original edition is Muhammad Abduh, Risalat al-tawhid (Cairo: Matba’a al-kubra al-amiriya, 1897). The only English translation is by Ishaq Nusa’ad and Kenneth Cragg, as The Theology of Unity (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966).
Also of interest are (for Taylor) Thomas Prasch, “Which God for Africa: The Islamic–Christian Missionary Debate in Late-Victorian England,” Victorian Studies 33 (1989), Elie Kedourie, “The Death of Adib Ishaq,” Middle Eastern Studies 9 (1973), pp. 97–8, and Marwa Elshakry, “The Gospel of Science and American Evangelism in Late Ottoman Beirut,” Past and Present 196 (2007), pp. 212–23.
CHAPTER 6
See, again, Uthman Amin, Muhammad Abduh, first suggested in the notes on further reading for Chapter One. For the Azhar and the Mufti, see A. Chris Eccel, Egypt, Islam and Social Change: Al-Azhar in Conflict and Accommodation (Berlin: Schwarz, 1984), and Jakob Skovgaard-Petersen, Defining Islam for the Egyptian State: Muftis and Fatwas of the Dar al-Ifta (Leiden: Brill, 1997).
For the law, see Byron D. Cannon, “Social Tensions and the Teaching of European Law in Egypt Before 1900,” History of Education Quarterly 15, no. 3 (Autumn 1975), pp. 299–315.
For the khedive, an accessible source is Khedive Abbas Hilmi II, Memoirs: The Last Khedive of Egypt (1940; trans. & ed. Amira Sonbol, Reading: Ithaca Press, 1988).
For an unusual and interesting view of “reform,” see Timothy Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).
CHAPTER 7
See, again, Uthman Amin, Muhammad Abduh, suggested in the notes on further reading for Chapter One. See also Ayalon, The Press in the Arab Middle East, already suggested in the notes for Chapter Two, and Jamal Mohammed Ahmed, The Intellectual Origins of Egyptian Nationalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1960).
For the Azhar lectures as recorded and edited by Rida, see Tafsir al-Quran al-hakim al-mushtahar bi-ism Tafsir al-Manar, ed. Muhammad Rashid Rida (Cairo: Dar al-Manar, 1906–1935). For a commentary, see Jacques Jomier, Le commentaire coranique du Manar: tendances modernes d’exégèse coranique en Egypte (Paris: G. P. Maisonneuve, 1954).
For Farah Antun, see Donald Malcolm Reid, The Odyssey of Farah Antun: A Syrian Christian’s Quest for Secularism (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1975).
CHAPTER 8
See, again, Uthman Amin, Muhammad Abduh, first suggested in the notes for Chapter One. See also Skovgaard-Petersen, Defining Islam for the Egyptian State, already suggested in the notes for Chapter Six.
For Islam in South Africa, see Ibrahim Mahomed Mahida, “History of Muslims in South Africa,” South African History Online, http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/library-resources/online%20books/history-muslims/1800s.htm.
CHAPTER 9
The best source for the opposition to Muhammad Abduh is Indira Falk Gesink, “Beyond Modernism: Opposition and Negotiation in the Azhar Reform Movement, 1870–1911,” unpublished PhD thesis, Washington University, St. Louis, 2000. It is to be hoped that this thesis will soon be published. Also of use is, once again, Uthman Amin, Muhammad Abduh, first suggested in the notes for Chapter One.
Taha Husayn’s Al-ayyam is available in translation as The Days: Taha Husayn, his Autobiography in Three Parts, ed. E. H. Paxton, Hilary Wayment and Kenneth Cragg (Cairo:AUC Press, 1997).
For Muhammad Abduh in Algeria, see Rachid Bencheneb, “Le séjour du šayh ‘Abduh en Algérie (1903),” Studia Islamica 53 (1981), pp. 121–35.
CHAPTER 10
For politics, Walid Kazziha, “The Jaridah-Ummah Group and Egyptian Politics,” Middle Eastern Studies 13 (1977), pp. 373–85.
For the reception of Abduh, Mohamed Haddad, “Les oeuvres de ‘Abduh: histoire d’une manipulation,” Institut de Belles Lettres Arabes (Tunis) 60 (1997), pp. 197–222 and Mohamed Haddad, “Abduh et ses lecteurs: pour une histoire critique des lectures de M.‘Abduh,” Arabica 45 (1998), pp. 22–49.
For insurance, Samir Mankabady, “Insurance and Islamic Law:The Islamic Insurance Company,” Arab Law Quarterly 4, no. 3 (August 1989), pp. 200–201.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abbas Hilmi II, Khedive
. Memoirs: The Last Khedive of Egypt (1940), trans. and ed. Amira Sonbol. Reading: Ithaca Press, 1988.
Abduh, Muhammad: see Muhammad Abduh
Adams, Charles C. Islam and Modernism in Egypt: A Study of the Modern Reform Movement Inaugurated by Muhammad ‘Abduh. London: Oxford University Press, 1933.
Afghani, Jamal al-Din. Haqiqat-i mazhab-i naichun. Hyderabad, 1881.
—— Letter to the editor. Journal des débats politiques et littéraires, May 18, 1883, p. 3.
Ahmad, Aziz: see Aziz Ahmad.
Ahmed, Jamal Mohammed: see Jamal Mohammed Ahmed.
Amin, Uthman: see Uthman Amin.
“Anglais en Egypte,” les. Journal des débats, April 6, 1883, p. 2.
Ayalon, Ami. The Press in the Arab Middle East: A History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Aziz Ahmad. “Afghani’s Indian Contacts.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 89 (1969), pp. 476–504.
Beinin, Joel. “Islamic Responses to the Capitalist Penetration of the Middle East.” In The Islamic Impulse, ed. Barbara F. Stowasser. Washington: Croom Helm, 1987, pp. 87–106.
Bencheneb, Rachid. “Le séjour du šayh ‘Abduh en Algérie (1903).” Studia Islamica 53 (1981), pp. 121–35.
Blunt, Wilfrid Scawen. Secret History of the English Occupation of Egypt: Being a Personal Narrative of Events (1907). New York: H. Fertig, 1967.
—— Gordon at Khartoum: Being a Personal Narrative of Events in Continuation of a Secret History of the English Occupation of Egypt. London: Swift, 1911.
Broadley, Alexander Meyrick. How we Defended Arábi and his Friends: A Story of Egypt and the Egyptians (1884). Cairo: RAPAC, 1980.
Cannon, Byron D. “Social Tensions and the Teaching of European Law in Egypt Before 1900.” History of Education Quarterly 15, no. 3 (Autumn 1975), pp. 299–315.
Cole, Juan R. I. “Muhammad ‘Abduh and Rashid Rida:A Dialogue on the Baha’i Faith.” World Order 15, nos. 3–4 (Spring/Summer 1981), pp. 7–16.
—— Colonialism and Revolution in the Middle East: Social and Cultural Origins of Egypt’s ‘Urabi Movement. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
Cromer, Earl of. Modern Egypt. London: Macmillan, 1908.
—— Abbas II. London: Macmillan, 1915.
De Jong, Fred. “Madaniyya.” Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition.
Eccel, A. Chris. Egypt, Islam and Social Change: Al-Azhar in Conflict and Accommodation. Berlin: Schwarz, 1984.
Eickelman, Dale F. “The Art of Memory: Islamic Education and its Social Reproduction.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 20 (1978), pp. 485–516.
Elshakry, Marwa. “The Gospel of Science and American Evangelism in Late Ottoman Beirut.” Past and Present 196 (2007), pp. 212–23.
Falk Gesink, Indira. “Beyond Modernism: Opposition and Negotiation in the Azhar Reform Movement, 1870–1911.” Unpublished PhD thesis, Washington University, St. Louis, 2000.
Goldschmidt, Arthur. Biographical Dictionary of Modern Egypt. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2000.
Gottheil, Richard. “Mohammed Abduh, Late Mufti of Egypt.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 28 (1907), p. 196.
Guizot, François. The History of Civilization in Europe (1864). Trans. William Hazlitt. London: Penguin Books, 1997.
Haddad, Mohamed. “Les oeuvres de ‘Abduh: histoire d’une manipulation.” Institut de Belles Lettres Arabes (Tunis) 60 (1997), pp. 197–222.
—— “Abduh et ses lecteurs: pour une histoire critique des lectures de M. ‘Abduh.” Arabica 45 (1998), pp. 22–49.
Hanssen, Jens. Fin de siècle Beirut: The Making of an Ottoman Provincial Capital. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Herrera, Linda. “Overlapping Modernities: From Christian Missionary to Muslim Reform Schooling in Egypt.” CIAO Working Paper, 2001. Hildenbrandt, Thomas. “Waren Ğamal ad-Din al-Afġani und Muhammad ‘Abduh Neo-Mu’taziliten?” Die Welt des Islams 42 (2002), pp. 205–62.
Hunter, F. Robert. Egypt under the Khedives, 1805–1879: From Household Government to Modern Bureaucracy. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1984.
Husayn, Taha: see Taha Husayn.
Ibrahim Mahomed Mahida. “History of Muslims in South Africa.” South African History Online, http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/library-resources/online%20books/history-muslims/1800s.htm.
Jamal Mohammed Ahmed. The Intellectual Origins of Egyptian Nationalism. London: Oxford University Press, 1960.
Jomier, Jacques. Le commentaire coranique du Manar: tendances modernes d’exégèse coranique en Egypte. Paris: G. P. Maisonneuve, 1954.
Kazziha, Walid. “The Jaridah-Ummah Group and Egyptian Politics.” Middle Eastern Studies 13 (1977), pp. 373–85.
Keddie, Nikki. An Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamal ad-Din “al-Afghani” including a translation of the Refutation of the Materialists from the original Persian by Nikki R. Keddie and Hamid Algar. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968.
—— Sayyid Jamal al-Din “al-Afghani”: A Political Biography. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972.
Kedourie, Elie. Afghani and ‘Abduh: An Essay on Religious Unbelief and Political Activism in Modern Islam. London: Cass, 1966.
—— “The death of Adib Ishaq.” Middle Eastern Studies 9 (1973), pp. 31–6.
Kerr, Malcolm H. Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966.
Klemke, Andreas. Stiftungen im muslimischen Rechtsleben des neuzeitlichen Ägypten. Frankfurt: Heidelberger Orientalistischer Studien, 1991.
Köhler, Werner, and Simon P. Hardy. “Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie – 100 years ago: Early considerations of the El Tor vibrios.” International Journal of Medical Microbiology 296 (2006), pp. 333–40.
Kudsi-Zadeh, A. Albert. “Afghani and Freemasonry in Egypt.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 92 (1972), pp. 25–35.
—— “The Emergence of Political Journalism in Egypt.” The Muslim World 70 (1980), pp. 47–55.
Mahida, Ibrahim Mahomed: see Ibrahim Mahomed Mahida.
Mankabady, Samir. “Insurance and Islamic Law:The Islamic Insurance Company.” Arab Law Quarterly 4, no. 3 (August 1989), pp. 199–205.
Marsot, Afaf Lutfi Al-Sayyid. “The Cartoon in Egypt.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 13, no. 1 (January 1971), pp. 2–15.
Mayeur-Jaouen, Catherine. “Tanta.” Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition.
Michel, B., and Moustapha Abdel Razik. “Introduction sur la vie et les idées du Cheikh Mohammed Abdou.” Introduction to Rissalat al Tawhid: exposé de la religion musulmane. Paris: P. Geuthner, 1925.
Mitchell, Timothy. Colonizing Egypt. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
Muhammad Abduh. Risalat al-waridat fi sirr al-tajalliyyat. Manuscript, 1874.
—— Al-taliqat ala sharh al-Dawani li’l-aqaid al-Adudiyya. Manuscript, 1876.
—— Risalat al-tawhid. Cairo: Matba’a al-kubra al-amiriyya, 1897.
—— Tafsir al-fatiha. Cairo, 1901.
—— Tafsir al-Quran al-hakim al-mushtahar bi-ism Tafsir al-Manar, ed. Muhammad Rashid Rida. Cairo: Dar al-Manar, 1906–35.
—— Al-amal al-kamila li’l-imam Muhammad Abduh, ed. Muhammad Imara. Beirut:Al-mu’assasa al-Arabiya li’l-dirasat wa al-nashr, 1972–74, 6 vols.
Ostle, Robin. “Modern Egyptian Renaissance Man.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 57 (1994), pp. 184–92.
Prasch, Thomas. “Which God for Africa:The Islamic–Christian Missionary Debate in Late-Victorian England.” Victorian Studies 33 (1989), pp. 51–73.
Reid, Donald Malcolm. The Odyssey of Farah Antun: A Syrian Christian’s Quest for Secularism. Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1975.
Renan, Ernest. “L’islamisme et la science.” Journal des débats politiques et littéraires, March 30, 1883, pp. 2–3.
—— Letter to the editor. Journal des débats politiques et
littéraires, May 19, 1883, p. 3.
Rida, Muhammad Rashid. Tarikh al-ustadh al-imam al-shaykh Muhammad Abduh. Cairo: Matba’at al-manar, 1906.
Rizk, Yunan Labib. “Demise of the Red Headgear.” Al-Ahram Weekly 525 (March 15, 2001).
Roff, William R. “Kaum Muda – Kaum Tua: Innovation and Reaction amongst the Malays, 1900–1941.” In Papers on Malayan History, ed. K. G. Tregonning. Singapore: Journal of South-East Asian History, 1962, pp. 162–92.
Salomon, Noah. “Undoing the Mahdiyya: British Colonialism as Religious Reform in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1898–1914.” University of Chicago Divinity School working paper, May 2004. Available http://marty-center.uchicago.edu/webforum/052004/salomon.pdf.
Scanlan, Matthew. “Freemasonry Serving Egypt.” Freemasonry Today 31 (Winter 2005), p. 31.
Scharbrodt, Oliver. “The Salafiyya and Sufism: Muhammad ‘Abduh and his Risalat al-waridat (Treatise on mystical inspirations).” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2007), pp. 89–115.
Siedentop, Larry. “Introduction.” In The History of Civilization in Europe (1864) by François Guizot. London: Penguin Books, 1997.
Skovgaard-Petersen, Jakob. Defining Islam for the Egyptian State: Muftis and Fatwas of the Dar al-Ifta. Leiden: Brill, 1997.
Smallman-Raynor, Matthew, and Andrew D. Cliff, “The Philippines Insurrection and the 1902–4 Cholera Epidemic.” Journal of Historical Geography 24, no. 1 (January 1998), pp. 69–89.
Taha Husayn. Al-ayyam. Trans. as The Days: Taha Husayn, his Autobiography in Three Parts, ed. E. H. Paxton, Hilary Wayment, and Kenneth Cragg. Cairo:AUC Press, 1997.
Taylor, Isaac. Leaves from an Egyptian Notebook. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, 1888.
Muhammad Abduh Page 15