First Action of Vicenza, May 20th/21st (see maps on pages 178 and 183)
Count Thurn’s intention, upon leaving Visnadello, had been to march directly to Verona. However, as his Advance Guard, Brigade Felix Schwarzenberg, neared Vicenza at around 15:00 on the 20th, Thurn ordered Schwarzenberg to test the defences. Schwarzenberg sent Lieutenant Count Zichy, with two companies of Deutsch-Banat Grenzer towards the north-eastern part of the city,around the Santa Lucia Gate.
The Fortress Commander, Colonel Domenico Beluzzi, had the following units in place to defend the city:
Alto-Reno Battalion, Colonel Zambeccari (with two cannon)
Faenza Civic Battalion, Major Pasi
Ravenna Civic Battalion, Major Montanari
Lugo Civic Battalion, Colonel Constante Ferrari
In addition, three more battalions were shortly to arrive, the Roman University Battalion, Lieutenant-Colonel Tittoni, and the two battalions of the 3rd Roman Legion, Colonel Gallieno, which Durando had hurriedly been sent by train. The total number of men available was approximately 5, 000, roughly the same number that were about to probe.
Awaiting the attack were Colonel Zambeccari’s Alto Reno Battalion, and II/3rd Roman Legion, Major Ceccarini. As Zichy and his men approached the barricaded streets and houses, they were met by a heavy fire, causing the forward echelons of the Grenzer to waver, and fall back. Zichy, indignant, leapt from his horse, grabbed a musket, and rushed forward, to be hit in the head almost immediately. Mortally wounded, he died on the way to Verona.
After a prolonged firefight, it became clear to Thurn that only a major effort stood any chance of success, and this he had not time for. Schwarzenberg was ordered to break off the action, and make his way to Olmo, south-west of the city, where the rest of the Corps was already encamped. Schwarzenberg had lost one officer and seven men killed, two officers mortally wounded, and two officers and 86 men wounded. Perhaps surprisingly, the defenders had 10 killed and 80 wounded. Of these, three dead and 21 wounded were from Major Ceccarini’s battalion.
The next day, Durando’s main force arrived in Vicenza around noon, having been forced to march from Padua, due to a breakdown of the trains. As they lay resting, at about 14:00, the drums sounded the assembly. Durando and his staff had been watching from the walls, as Thurn’s Corps, with its supply and baggage trains, and herds of oxen, made their way towards Verona. Although an attack on Nugent’s main force would have been complete madness, a move against the rearguard about two kilometres from the city, was promulgated by the Venetian Legion, and the Galateo Battalion, as much to embarrass General Durando, as anything else.
As General Antonini tauntingly led the troops forward, Durando hurriedly assembled the grenadier and cacciatori companies of the Foreign Brigade, the cavalry, and a half battery, and leading them in the same direction. North of the road were corn and rye fields, and to the south, marshy rice fields. An artillery bombardment ensued, at one point, causing the Swiss grenadiers to waver. General Antonini was wounded, losing an arm, and fell from his horse. His taunt to Durando had cost him dearly. The inconclusive encountered gradually spluttered out, as the Austrian rearguard followed the remainder of the corps. Italian losses were three dead, and nine wounded. Austrian accounts lump the loss of the two days together.
Attack on Vicenza, 24th May
Thurn’s Advance Guard had reached Caldiero, less than 15 kilometres from Verona on May 22nd, when orders were received from Marshal Radetzky to for III Corps to turn about, and take Vicenza, if practicable. Thurn was, in any case, to be back in Verona by the 25th. This was a tall order, but an order it was. The reason for this was that the supply situation was becoming increasingly difficult, and would, of course, worsen with the arrival of Thurn’s men. Similarly, reinforcements were not available, as the Marshal deemed it inadvisable to denude the defences for the necessary five to six days. Only a howitzer battery, and 12 Pounder Battery Nr. 3 were attached to Thurn’s force. As cavalry would be of little use in the operation, only two squadrons made the return march
The main body of III Corps, encamped around San Bonfacio, 20 kilometres east of Verona, started back towards Vicenza at 14:00, on May 23rd, the Advance Guard having preceded it two hours previously. The march took place in heavy rain, which continued all night. By the late evening, the 18,000 men were deployed to the west and south of the city.
In the north, facing the Santa Croce Gate, between those of San Bartolomeo and Castello, stood Brigade Schulzig, comprising I and II/IR Kinsky, I/Peterwardeiner, and II/2nd Banal Grenz, with one horse battery. To attack San Felice was Brigade Kleinberg, composed of I and II/IR Fürstenwärther, I/Warasdiner-St. George, I/1st Banal Grenz, and one horse battery. Deployed behind Kleinberg was Brigade Supplikatz, with Grenadier Battalion Biergotsch, and I/Oguliner Grenzer. Supplikatz was to occupy the ground between the road and the River Retrone. Brigade Felix Schwarzenberg, I/Deutsch-Banat, I/Illyrian Banat, I and II/IR Wocher, two squadrons of Archduke Carl Uhlans, and 6 Pounder Battery Nr. 2 formed the reserve, along with the Reserve Artillery. South of the Retrone, Colonel Count Thun, with I and II/IR Archduke Carl, the first division of 9th Feld-Jäger Battalion, and a rocket battery, was in the hills of Madonna del Monte.
Durando had about 11,000 men at his disposal. Defending the area south from the San Bartolomeo Gate, was I/1st Foreign Regiment, Major Balletta, along with two companies of Galateo’s Treviso Line Battalion with one 18 pounder cannon. From the Castello Gate to the railway was the responsibility of 1st Grenadier/1st Foreign Regiment, Captain Schmidt, the Foot Carabinieri, Captain Nicoletti, with a howitzer of the Foreign Battery, and a section (two guns) of the Indigenous Battery. The northeast sector of the city was covered by II/3rd Roman Legion, Major Ceccarini, and Colonel Zambeccari’s Alto Reno Battalion. On Monte Berico was I/2nd Foreign Regiment, Major Kaiser, with his outposts being Captain Mosti’s Bersaglieri of the Po, and the Vicenza Company of Captain Fusinato. Also present was an artillery section, Lieutenant Pifferi. In the central square of the city was drawn up the rest of the Foreign Brigade and the reserve artillery.
Thurn’s bombardment began at 05:30. First to attack, after the pioneers had constructed a bridge over the Retrone, was Kleinberg. In an action where Captain Imbrissević, of the Oguliner, distinguished himself, the troops stormed two barricades, compelling the Swiss grenadiers and the Carabinieri to withdraw into the city. Kleinberg then occupied the suburb, and edged the main body of his brigade to the left, in order to make contact with Schulzig.
Elsewhere, though, progress was minimal, and descended into heavy exchanges of fire between sections and platoons occupying adjacent buildings. The bombardment continued unabated. Fires broke out in many parts of the city, and Durando was forced to use men of the artillery reserve to extinguish some of them. In addition, there were fears for a major magazine in the old walls in the south of the city. It proved necessary to move all the ammunition, and 250 barrels of powder, to the safety of the cellars under the tower in the main square. This extremely dangerous work was efficiently done, under the supervision of Captain Busa and Engineer-Lieutenant Jourdan, of the General Staff.
Thurn had held out great hopes for the progress of the column of Colonel Count Thun, south of the city. Thun was to have moved up onto the Berici Hills, the city’s weak point. This march, though, failed completely partly due to the darkness, partly to the rain and the consequent flooding, and partly due to the ineptitude of the scouts. By 09:00, with no sign of Thun, and little other progress, the artillery were running short of ammunition. There was no choice other than to call off the attack. The corps withdrew to Olmo, resting there for a time, and then began the weary march towards Verona once again. Thurn had suffered some 170 casualties. About a third of these were taken prisoner after the retreat, as they were isolated within buildings when it began, and were either unable to conform or were simply unaware of it. Durando reported his loss as 10 killed and 33 wounded, and roughly the same number for the garrison. Vicenza continued
to be a thorn in Radetzky’s side. As Thurn’s columns, constantly on the move since the 18th, again tramped towards Verona, the men must have hoped for a decent rest. They would be disappointed. 35
EVENTS IN THE CADORE, MAY–JUNE
In the remote, barren mountains of the Cadore, the region north of Belluno, the spirit of resistance was greater than anywhere else in mainland Venetia. When the news of the revolution reached the region’s capital, Pieve, immediate steps were taken to form a Civic Guard, and a delegation was sent to Venice to pledge their loyalty to the Republic, and to ask for material assistance. The Provisional Government agreed to the request of the Cadorini delegates, and, by a Decree of April 17th, appointed a former Austrian officer, Pietro Calvi, a native of the region, to organise their forces. They further provided them with five cannon, 200 carbines, and 1,650 pounds of powder.
Calvi, an excellent organiser, promptly formed five small companies of ‘Free Corps’, comprising 80 men apiece. Each had a commander, one sergeant, and four corporals. He also galvanised the 4,000 or so of the newly raised Civic Guard. He also got his men to work, gathering large numbers of boulders at strategic points, where they could be rolled or dropped on unsuspecting Austrian troops. Since there were no uniforms, it was initially decided that each man would turn up the brim of his hat, and place upon it a tricolour cockade. The enthusiasm shown in these figures is all the more remarkable considering that the region’s entire population was only some 36,000.
Calvi was fortunate to be given some time, due to the confusion in Venetia in the first weeks of the revolution. It was only with the creation and despatch of Count Nugent’s Reserve Corps, in mid-April, that any concern grew in most of the province. Even then, this had no immediate effect on the Cadore until the beginning of the following month. Calvi worked hard during those two weeks. He was also very fortunate that when the initial threat did appear, it was, for a considerable time, a low priority of Nugent and his successors, who correctly judged that this issue could wait. Nevertheless, the subject was not completely ignored, and on April 30th, Major Hablitschek was directed to probe towards Cortina D’Ampezzo, in the northern Cadore, and the pass of Monte Croce further east. Hablitschek moved from his current position in the Puster River Valley on the borders of the eastern Tirol, the next day.
Action of Chiapuzza, May 2nd
Hablitschek, with four companies of IR Prohaska, two of IR Hohenlohe, one of Kaiser Jäger, and a wing of Archduke Carl Uhlans, moved into the Cadore on May 1st. On the following day, 6/Kaiser Jäger, Captain Nagy, with the two companies of IR Hohenlohe, and a half company of Ampezzo Ländesschützen, encountered three of the Cadorini Free Corps, and numbers of Civic Guard, summoned by the pealing of church bells, behind defensive works, with two cannon. Hablitschek sent two officers to parley with the Cadorini commander, Ignazio Galeazzi, informing him that, in accordance with the conditions of the capitulation of Udine, his men were to give up their weapons, and return home. Galeazzi rejected these terms.
As Nagy was manoeuvring to assault the right flank of the enemy works, an order arrived, from FZM Nugent, himself. This required an immediate breaking off of the action, and a withdrawal to Acquabuona. This was rendered more difficult by Calvi, who, about 14:00, brought his men out from behind their defences to attack. Fortunately for Hablitschek, the lack of training on the part of Calvi’s men precluded their seriously threatening the enemy withdrawal. Hablitschek had four men wounded that day, and the Cadorini, one dead, and a few wounded. The Cadorini were jubilant at seeing their enemy in retreat, convinced that they had won a great victory. Calvi doubtless knew better, but realised the immense value to this massive boost to their morale. The mystery of the retreat was quickly revealed to the mystified Hablitschek. Archduke Johann had personally ordered a halt to the operation, as no Ländesschützen were allowed to be employed outside the frontiers of the Tirol. Possibly, the Archduke, at that point, was concerned as to how many similar status troops might be involved.36
Actions of May 7th and 8th
On the evening of May 5th, two companies of 1st Banal Grenzer, under Captain Henikstein, and the 8th division of IR Hohenlohe left Belluno, moving towards Longarone, some 20 kilometres by road to the northeast. This move started the Cadorini alarm bells ringing. The following day, the second division, IR Archduke Carl, was sent to join Henikstein, to replace the two companies of IR Hohenlohe, and move 10 kilometres further north, to Rivalgo.
On the morning of the 7th, the four companies with Henikstein moved forward towards Tovanella. Pietro Calvi was strong on numbers, but not on firearms, and probably had some 1,800 Civic Guards, and 300 Free Corps men at his disposal. Many rockfalls of boulders were ready for use, and mines prepared. A very slow and protracted combat took place, ending with the Cadorini still in Tovanella, and the Imperial troops in Termine and Castel Lavazzo, having taken a small cannon. Overnight, the Cadorini exploded a pre-prepared mine in a house in the village, killing four, and wounding six men of 4/IR Archduke Carl. The local priest was imprisoned in Belluno as a result.
The next morning, Henikstein being reinforced by 3 and 4/IR Archduke Carl, the combat began anew, with the Cadorini loosing large numbers of landslides and rockfalls, at every possible place and time, and roads barricaded or blocked. With their advance thoroughly disrupted, the Imperial troops pulled back. Austrian losses are uncertain for the two days. IR Archduke Carl had one officer and 12 men missing, on the 8th, and IR Hohenlohe had one killed and four badly wounded that day. Significantly, the regimental history reports ‘many’ lightly wounded, indicative of the nature of the struggle. Cadorini losses are given by Pieri as 12 dead, and ‘some’ wounded.37
II Reserve Corps in Venetia
Pinprick moves by either side continued through mid May, without any advantage accruing. A major Austrian administrative change was to alter the situation. A separate army corps was established, with specific responsibility for the reduction of the remainder of the eastern Veneto, its initial area of operations was the area between the Isonzo and Piave Rivers. Baron Ludwig Welden, fresh from his success in the Tirol, was given command of II Reserve Corps on May 20th. Now in place was an experienced senior officer with whose focus included the Cadore. This, inevitably, changed everything. One of his priorities was the opening of direct communications with Inner Austria and The Tirol. Upon taking command, Welden had the following troops:
Colonel Baron Stillfried (Belluno)
One battalion, four companies, four guns
1,600 men, four guns
Colonel Susan
Seven companies, one squadron, one pioneer platoon, five guns (Part Treviso/part Piave Bridges)
900 men, five guns
Four battalions, two squadrons, four guns (On the march from the Tagliamento)
5,000 men, four guns
Major-General Mitis
Three battalions, two 6 pounder cannon, four mortars, and three sapper detachments (before Palmanova)
3,600 men, six guns
Colonel Philippović
Four battalions, one 6 pounder battery, one rocket battery (Part before Osoppo, and part in the Friuli)
4,800 men, six guns, six rocket tubes
Total: 15,900 men38
In addition, a further three battalions, three squadrons, two pioneer companies, and three bridging trains were on the way to join him.
Within days, three separate columns advanced into the Cadore. First to move, from Belluno, was Baron Stillfried, sent with 10 companies of IR Haynau, two of I/1st Banal Grenzer, and a half rocket battery, advancing up through Longarone. From the north, once more, came Major Hablitschek, with eight companies, through the Cortina D’Ampezzo, and I/IR Hrabowsky, Captain Hermann, with a rocket detachment, approaching from the direction of Bolzano.
First to be engaged, by Calvi himself, was Hermann. On May 24th, as the battalion approached the narrow gorge of the aptly-named Pass of Death, fire was opened upon them, and, far more effective, huge numbers of boulders, stones and
rubble showered down into the pass, making any entry into it impossible, although the defenders were subjected to rocket fire, which doubtless caused further avalanches. Hermann, with one officer and several men wounded, was forced to detour to the south, where a further attempt was made to get through the mountains on the 27th – this also failed, with a loss of one officer and six men wounded, and one man missing
The column from Belluno made better progress, and by the 28th, had reached Rivalgo. Here, the Coletti Free Corps defended fixed positions, and had the cannon which still remained in place. They held the position courageously, and Stillfried could make no headway at all. Finally, Stillfried withdrew to Termine. From the north, Major Hablitschek also made no progress.39
The operations had all failed to achieve their objectives. They had, for the most part, been badly coordinated, although to some extent that was inevitable. Calvi and his commanders had, once again, worked wonders, even though the terrain greatly favoured them. Now, however, they were running short of food, powder, and ammunition. The men were also drifting away. From June 2nd, FML Welden launched a series of sweeps which finished the revolt. Major Mikich cleared the villages of Zoldo and Agordo on June 9th. The fighting in the Cadore was over. Between the 8th of May, and the 9th of June, the Imperial forces had 30 killed and 150 wounded there.40
Pietro Calvi, after releasing his remaining followers from their obligations, fled on his famous white horse, and went to Venice. He would remain there for the duration of hostilities. Calvi had been the life and soul of resistance in his own home region. The question must remain, however; how realistic were his expectations, for which so many suffered?
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1
Cesari, p.30, and Pieri, p. 371. The latter states that around 200 of the total were former soldiers.
2
Gavenda, Anton, Sammlung aller die Hauptmomente des italienischen krieges in den Jahren 1848 und 1849 der Oesterreicher gegen Piemont und dessen Verbündete, p. 18, ‘Armee-Bulletin Nr. 1’. This is also quoted in Munaretto, Bruno, La battaglia di Montebello Vicentino, p. 54, where it is added that the prisoners totalled 29, and the Austrian dead numbered three, not two!
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