Radetzky's Marches

by Michael Embree

  Politically, the only hotbed of dissent was the constantly fulminating Mazzinian Italian Circle, few of them Venetian. They greatly resented Manin’s Dictatorship, no matter how it had come to be. Seeing themselves as the guardians of freedom, they formed watch-dog committees to investigate government departments, and sought to hunt down traitors, particularly in the Church. They also complained long and loud that the war was not being fully or properly prosecuted. Crucially, the Circle did its best to infiltrate the Army. In short, for them nothing was right.

  Manin did not think that the chaotic example of Rome, now effectively a Mazzinian Republic, held up by the Circle as ideal, was a particularly good one for Venice to follow. Tiring of the constant criticism and plotting, on October 1st, the President signed an order expelling the three prime movers of the organisation to the Papal States. Two days later, promulgated by Manin’s military Triumver, Colonel Cavedalis, the officers and soldiers of the Army were told that involvement with the Circle could only take place with official permission. The group was emasculated, and President Manin virtually without any effective internal opposition.

  When elections were held in January, 1849, introduced on the basis of universal male suffrage, the lower orders of society voted solidly for the Government candidates. Other sections of the populace, though, were expressing doubts about the complete nature of power of the Triumverate. When the newly elected Assembly met, in the Doge’s Palace the following month, it endlessly discussed constitutional affairs, but decided nothing. Public dissatisfaction with the apparently endless talk resulted, on March 5th, in a mob storming the Palace, unhindered by the Civic Guard. They were met by President Manin, sword in hand, along with his son and a few others.

  Manin made it clear that the crowd would only proceed in the event of his death. Much discussion ensued, but finally, the mob dispersed. On March 7th, a very worried Assembly voted Manin almost total power. The Triumverate, never more than a sham, was gone.29

  Talks between Venice and Turin had been taking place almost since the Salasco Armistice. The desire for a renewal of the war on the part of the Piedmontese had never been in doubt. For Venice, the only real hopes for improvement in the New Year lay with either Carlo Alberto or Lajos Kossuth.

  _______________________

  1

  Bianchi, p. 80.

  2

  The Littoral is a belt of high dunes, some 50 kilometres in length, extending from the mouth of the River Brenta, to that of the Sile, which separates the Venetian Lagoon from the Adriatic.

  3

  Grüll, pp. 555-556, Kriegbegebenheiten, 1848, Part 4, p. 78, and Bortolotti, p. 237.

  4

  Garnier-Pagès, Vol. I, p. 424.

  5

  Radaelli, p. 153, says about 1,500.

  6

  The orders are printed in Pagani, pp. 508-509, and mentioned in Trevelyan, p. 196. Ellesmere, p. 160, mentions the city’s surrender, but not to which brigade, which the original German edition does.

  7

  Santalena, pp. 71-78, Kriegsbegebenheiten, 1848, Part 4, pp. 82-85, Welden, 236-239. Times given vary in different accounts, but the cannonade is generally referred to as a “12 hour bombardment”.

  8

  Ravioli, pp. 121-122.

  9

  Ibid, and Flagg, Vol. II, p. 27.

  10

  Ulloa, Vol. II, pp. 76-77, and Rüstow, p. 298.

  11

  Foramiti, Niccoló, La Repubblica Veneta dei 102 giorni nel 1848, come appendice a tutte le storie di Venezia finora pubblicate, 1850, p. 75.

  12

  Crammer was later awarded the Gold Medal for Bravery, and Gefreiter Öllinger, the Silver Medal, 2nd Class, Grois, pp. 333-334.

  13

  Grüll, pp. 583-584, Welden, pp. 232-234, Pepe, Vol. I, pp. 258-266, and Jäger, pp. 378-381. Foramiti, Niccoló, Fatti di Venezia degli anni, 1848-1849, states that, “…the Austrians vigorously counterattacked and pushed them back.” p. 38.

  14

  Treuenfest, Infanterie-Regimentes Nr. 47, places this on the 20th.

  15

  Degli Alberti, Mario, Alcuni episodi della Guerra nel Veneto ossia diario del generale Alberto La Marmora dal 26 Marzo al 20 Ottobre 1848, 1915, p. 97.

  16

  Contarini, p. 66.

  17

  Marchesi, pp. 271-275, Flagg, Vol II, pp. 101-104, and Foramiti, pp. 32-38.

  18

  Ulloa, Vol. II, p. 141.

  19

  Cavedalis, V. 1, p. 315.

  20

  Most notably, the former Papal units were disbanded in December, to be repatriated to the new republic there. Of the total of some 4,500 men, about 1,000 remained in Venice.

  21

  Kriegsbegebenheiten 1848, Part 4, pp. 104-106.

  22

  Debrunner, pp. 141-143, and Ulloa, Vol. II. Pp 166-167.

  23

  Barbarich, pp. 110-132, and Fabris, Vol. III, pp. 535-542.

  24

  Rüstow, pp. 376-377, Radaelli, pp. 221-222, Schneidawind, p. 658, and Contarini, pp. 94-95, who gives the attackers’ numbers as 400. Flagg, Vol II, p. 132, and Ulloa, Vol II, p. 166, state the casualties. Significantly, Jäger lists no Venetian loss for that day.

  25

  It will be recalled that Zambeccari, and his battalion, along with other troops, had surrendered to the Imperial forces at Treviso, in June. Their capitulation required that they not take up arms for a period of three months. That period had now expired.

  26

  Captain Orsini, in the Right Column, gives the time of the advance as 09:00. This seems too late.

  27

  Orsini, pp. 71-72.

  28

  Ulloa, Vol II, pp. 173-183, Orsini, pp. 70-72, Rambaldi, Orazione detta a Marghera per caduti nella sortita di Mestre 27 ottobre 1848, pp. 12-15, Grüll, pp. 604-805, and Kriegsbegebenheiten, 1848, Part 4, pp. 114-115.

  29

  Marchesi, pp. 309-312 and 371-380, Trevelyan, pp. 212-219.

  17

  The Adriatic,

  March–August 1848

  The Neapolitan Squadron enters the Northern Adriatic

  With the decision being forced upon King Ferdinando to commence hostilities with Austria, a Neapolitan naval force was rapidly sent into the northern Adriatic, taking with it elements of the military forces also committed to the campaign. A squadron under Admiral Raffaele de Cosa, sailing under sealed orders, left Naples on April 27th. He had, under his command, two frigates, one brig, Principe Carlo, and five armed steamers. Aboard his ships was embarked the 2nd Division of General Pepe’s Expeditionary Force. These troops, according to the Admiral’s instructions, were to be landed partly at Pescara, on the Adriatic coast some 150 kilometres from Rome, and partly at Giulianova, 40 kilometres further north. From these towns, the troops would then make their own way to Bologna, to join General Pepe and the main force, which had made the journey by road. In fact, de Cosa sailed further north, to Ancona, where the troops disembarked. From here, he prepared to return to Naples, as stipulated in his orders.

  However, on May 5th, the Admiral, still standing off Ancona, received a direct call for assistance from the Venetian Government, which was most concerned about the likelihood of a resurgent Imperial Navy. De Cosa, having no instructions for such an eventuality, sent a telegraphed message to King Ferdinando, asking for a further directive. It would not have been a message that the King would have wished for. Certainly, by the 11th of that month, the Austrian Captain Kudriaffsky had indeed united his squadron, and was in a position to be able to mount an effective blockade of Venice. Before he was able to do so, however, Rear-Admiral de Cosa had received further orders to proceed northwards. The squadron sailed on the 15th, on the following day sighting Chioggia, at the southern tip of the Venetian Lagoon. The Venetian Government was both delighted and relieved at his appearance, and Rear Admiral Bua’s Venetian squadron then joined de Cosa, off Chioggia. Kudriaffsky thereupon withdrew eastwards, to Salvore, a smal
l port on the Dalmatian coast, about 40 kilometres south-west of Trieste.

  De Cosa’s squadron comprised1:

  Frigates –

  Regina (1840), Captain Lettieri, 2,967 tons, 50 x 80 pounder cannon.

  Regina Isabella (1827), Captain Pucci, 2,529 tons, 26 x 24 pounder cannon, 20 x 30 pounder howitzers, and four 60 pounder Millar cannon.2

  Brig –

  Principe Carlo (1832-40), 414 tons, 16 x 24 pounder carronades, two 30 pounder howitzers.

  Steamers –

  Carlo III, Commander Spasiano, 1,306 tons, one 117 pounder Millar cannon, one 60 pounder Millar cannon, four 30 pounder howitzers, and two bronze 12 pounder howitzers.

  Guiscardo (1842), Commander Ducarné, 1,264 tons, one 117 pounder Millar cannon, one 60 pounder Millar cannon, four 30 pounder howitzers, and two bronze 12 pounder howitzers.

  Roberto, Commander Constantino, 1,264 tons, one 117 pounder Millar cannon, one 60 pounder Millar cannon, four 30 pounder howitzers, and two bronze 12 pounder howitzers

  Ruggiero (1841), Captain Lettieri, 1,264 tons, one 117 pounder Millar cannon, one 60 pounder Millar cannon, four 30 pounder howitzers, and two bronze 12 pounder howitzers

  Sannita, Commander Pucci, 1,306 tons, one 117 pounder Millar cannon, one 60 pounder Millar cannon, four 30 pounder howitzers, and two bronze 12 pounder howitzers

  Situation of the Austrian Squadron

  On the evening of May 19th, Vulcano joined Captain Kudriaffsky’s squadron, off the Dalmation Coast. It now consisted of the following:3

  Frigates –

  Bellona (1842), 1,260 tons, 30 x 18 pounders, two 60 pounder Paixhans cannon, 18 x 24 pounder carronades, one 12 pounder carronade, one 6 pounder cannon, one four pounder cannon, and four 1 pounders.

  Guerriera (1811 – rebuilt), 1,071 tons, 26 x 18 pounder cannon, four x 12 pounder cannon, 14 x 24 pounder carronades, one 8 pounder cannon, one six pounder cannon, one four pounder cannon, and four 1 pounder cannon.

  Venere (1813 – rebuilt), 1,071 tons, 24 x 18 pounder cannon, four 12 pounder cannon, 14 x 24 pounder carronades, two 60 pounder Paixhans cannon, one 9 pound cannon, one 8 pounder cannon, one 4 pounder cannon, and four 1 pounder cannon.

  Corvette, Adria (1826), 20 x 12 pounder cannon, one six pounder cannon, and four 1 pounder cannon.

  Brigs –

  Oreste (1832), four 9 pounder cannon, 12 x 24 pounder carronades, one 4 pounder cannon, and four 1 pounder cannon.

  Monteccucoli (1831), 16 x 12 pounder cannon, one 4 pounder cannon, and four 1 pounder cannon.

  Triest (1838), four 9 pounder cannon, 12 x 24 pounder carronades, one 4 pounder cannon, and four 1 pounder cannon.

  Pola (1832), 16 x 12 pounder cannon, one 4 pounder cannon, and four 1 pounder cannon.

  Steamers –

  Imperatore (1843), 550 tons, two 7 pounder cannon, and four 12 pounder carronades

  Vulcano (1843), 483 tons, two 48 pounder cannon, and two 12 pounder cannon

  Golette

  Sfinge (1829), 10 x 6 pounder cannon, and two 1 pounder cannon.

  The Austrian commodore’s force was more than capable, even allowing for the lack of training and experience of the majority of the men, of containing the infant Venetian Navy. It was, however, no match for De Cosa’s squadron. As if that were not enough, the arrival of another hostile flotilla in the upper Adriatic was imminent.

  The Sardinian force joins De Cosa

  Since the King’s Army had entered the war, the Sardinian Navy had also been making its preparations to join the campaign in the Adriatic. On April 22nd, the fleet was ordered in future to fly the new Royal Tricolour. Vice-Admiral Giuseppe Albini, with the first ships of the squadron, left Genoa on the 26th.

  These were the frigates San Michele, Des Geneys, and Beroldo, the brigantine Daino, and the goletta Staffetta. Sailing without incident, the squadron made Ancona on May 20th. The second Sardinian echelon, composed of the corvettes Aquila, and Aurora, and the steam corvettes Tripoli, and Malfetano, departed from Genoa a few days later. Aurora sailed to the Aegean to threaten Austrian interests in the Near East, while the other three vessels joined Admiral Albini. Albini’s squadron now comprised the following:

  Frigates –

  San Michele (1840), Ship’s Captain 2nd Class Tholsano, 2,400 tons, eight 80 pounder Paixhans cannon, and 36 x 36 pounder cannon

  Des Geneys (1827), Ship’s Captain 2nd Class D’Auvare, 1,400 tons, 20 x 24 pounder cannon, 22 x 48 pounder cannon, and two 60 pounder Paixhans cannon

  Beroldo (1827), Ship’s Captain 1st Class Villarey, 1,400 tons, 20 x 24 pounder cannon, 22 x 48 pounder cannon, and two 60 pounder Paixhans cannon

  Corvettes –

  Aquila (1838), Frigate-Captain Scoffiero, 752 tons, 16 x 24 pounder carronades

  Aurora (1827), Frigate-Captain da Demoro, 600 tons, 16 x 24 pounder carronades (detached)

  Steam Corvettes –

  Tripoli (1844), Frigate-Captain da Negri, 800 tons (180 hp), one 48 pounder Paixhans and two 36 pounder carronades

  Malfatano (1844), Ship’s Captain 2nd Class da Ceva di Nucetto, 800 tons (600 hp), one 48 pounder Paixhans, and two 36 pounder carronades

  Other –

  Brigantine Daino (1844), Frigate-Captain da Antonio Millelira, 450 tons, 16 short 12 pounder carronades

  Goletta Staffetta (1831), Frigate-Captain de Lenchantin, 16 short 12 pounder carronades

  Leaving the Tripoli and Malfatano to coal at Ancona, the squadron entered the Upper Adriatic on the 22nd of May, joining the combined Neapolitan-Venetians at Malamocco. Characteristically, Albini suggested that they should immediately attack the Austrian squadron, which was then cruising off the town of Salvore, some 40 kilometres from Trieste. His allies readily agreed. As the combined squadron got under way, neither Albini nor Bua could know that de Cosa had received confidential new orders from King Ferdinando, which had been personally delivered to him by a Royal Adjutant. Following on from the earlier public permission given to move north, these stipulated that no attack was to be made on the Austrian fleet. These instructions were, of course, very difficult to effect.

  The joint squadron made off in pursuit of the Austrians. The wind, initially in the Allies’ favour, soon dropped, greatly slowing progress. Captain Kudriaffsky had his own problems. His poorly manned ships were clumsily handled, and required the assistance of the steamers to manoeuvre. He was saved from disaster by two factors. First, three Lloyd steamers, Trieste, Imperatrice, and Federico were despatched to his assistance. Secondly, the Neapolitan vessels appeared, to Admiral Albini, to be noticeably reticent to close with the enemy. As darkness came, the Austrian steamers shepherded their charges into Trieste. The Italian squadron anchored off the port.

  Caorle, 3rd June

  At the mouth of the River Livenza, some 30 kilometres east of Venice, the Austrians had constructed two small earthen forts, which, along with six trabbacoli, were seriously interrupting the Venetian coastal trade routes. Consequently, Admiral Albini, at dawn on June 2nd, was implored by the Venetians to order an attack on these installations. He was also hoping that, according to some reports, an Austrian squadron was also there. The expedition, commanded by Captain Villarey, was composed of his own frigate, Beroldo, the steamers Tripoli, Frigate-Captain Da Negri, and Malfatano, Ship’s Captain 2nd Class da Ceva di Nucetto, and the Papal steamer Roma, Lieutenant-Colonel Cialdi. The expedition duly arrived off Caorle at about 14:00. Tripoli and Malfetano were also towing six gunboats. Six pirogues and five braggozi, with 150 men of the Venetian Civic Guard embarked, joined the force three hours later.

  Defending the work had been Captain Uiejsky, with three six pounder cannon, and four one pounders, along with a half company of the Wallachian Banat Grenzer. On June 2nd, further troops, under Captain Stieglitz, with, one 12 pounder cannon, and one additional 6 pounder, had also arrived, none too soon.

  Finding that, in fact, no Austrian warships were present, the Italian squadron closed to a distance of just over a kilometre from the Austr
ian works, before opening fire a little after 14:00. A heavy cannonade was maintained for some hours, with little damage to either side. Eventually, a south-easterly breeze arose, gradually becoming stronger, forcing the Italian small craft to disengage. Captain Villarey then ordered a withdrawal. Damage was limited on both sides, although Tripoli had been hit five times, and needed some repairs aloft. Villarey was adjudged to have been over cautious, and was relieved of his command. 4

  Trieste, 6/7th June

  Standing off Trieste, the Sardinian frigates Des Geneys and San Michele, on the evening of June 6th, were becalmed. The current then dragged the vessels within range of the Austrian shore batteries, which opened a heavy fire against them. Fortunately for them, in the twilight, this fire was inaccurate, and the two ships were taken in tow and pulled to safety, by the Neapolitan steamers Carlo III and Guiscardo.

  Caorle, 12/13th June

  On June 12th, Admiral Albini despatched Daino, Frigate Captain Persano, to Venice, to escort a convoy carrying 2,000 troops to reinforce the garrison of Palmanova. En route, as the convoy tacked in the direction of Caorle, Persano ordered a bombardment of the enemy works. The fire continued for 40 minutes, with Daino receiving 15 hits, and being holed below the waterline. Persano was forced to break off the action, leaving his moorings, and retire for repairs.5

  After the completion of the repairs, Persano again sailed for Caorle. With him, went the Venetian row gunboats Tremenda, Fulminante, Merope, and Stella (one 18 pounder cannon each), and the pinnaces Palma and Furiosa (one 12 pounder cannon each). Unwilling to take responsibility for the attack itself, Persano delegated it to Lieutenant Timoteo. The attack began at 06:30, with the small craft opening fire at a distance of only some 600 metres.