Radetzky's Marches

by Michael Embree

  Austrian diplomatic efforts, at this time, rested in the hands of the Minister of Finance, Karl Bruck. Bruck, a successful entrepreneur, and friend of Radetzky, had been appointed to attempt to open discussions with the Venetians. At the end of May, Bruck wrote to Manin, proposing discussions. In practice, Bruck’s proposals differed very little from earlier demands, and certainly would not countenance independence. They gradually fell by the wayside. Both were overtaken by military events.

  Venice under Close Siege

  For the defenders of Venice, the loss of the bridgehead on the mainland at the end of May, though painful, was actually in many ways a benefit. The work of the besiegers was now considerably more difficult. There was certainly no possibility of a direct attack along the Causeway. The struggle remained essentially static. On the other hand, for the first time, parts of the city itself were within artillery range. Now with the rank of General, Girolamo Ulloa prepared these defences for the inevitable attack.

  The Mestre railway viaduct had 222 arches, and a total length of 3,601 metres, with a width of nine metres, which in normal times, carried two tracks. Including the parapet, it was 4.25 metres above the water. It was divided into six series of arches, each one being 505 metres long. Each series was separated by a square, for construction and maintenance purposes. There were five of these, one large one in the middle of the structure, with two smaller ones on either side. To hinder the enemy, it was decided to destroy a number of the spans. Overnight on June 1st, four arches were blown up. The next night, another four were destroyed, followed by three more on the night of the 3rd. In fact, this work, rather than hinder the besiegers, did the opposite.43

  The defences of the city, facing Mestre were as follows:44

  On the Railway Viaduct

  Fort (or Battery) San Antonio – This was constructed on the large square in the middle of the viaduct. With a length of 136 metres, it had a width of 17.2 metres at the front, extending outwards to 56 metres, before then returning to 17.2 metres. Emplaced here, were five 24 pounder cannon, and two 36 pounders. Behind the battery, where the viaduct returns to its normal width, were placed two 8 inch mortars.

  Battery Pio Nono (Later, Battery Roma) – Five 24 Pounder Cannon

  In the Lagoon – North of the Viaduct

  Fort San Secondo – Five cannon on naval carriages

  San Marco Battery – Three 24 Pounder Cannon (to the right of Battery Pio Nono)

  Campalto Battery – Four 24 Pounder Cannon

  Tessera Battery – Two 18 Pounder Cannon

  Carbonera Battery – Two 18 Pounder Cannon

  In the Lagoon – South of the Viaduct

  Carlo Alberto Battery – Three 24 Pounder Cannon (to the left of Battery Pio Nono)

  Floating Battery – Two 18 Pounder Cannon

  Fort S. Gorgio in Alga – Seven cannon45

  Fort S. Angelo della Polvere – ?

  In the City

  Fort Santa Marta –Five Cannon of different calibres46

  On Murano

  Five cannon47

  The area most threatened was (and had already been) designated the 1st Defence District, which comprised the works along the Viaduct, and Fort San Secondo. In addition to the batteries, there were two naval flotillas available for the defence of the western areas of the city. These were the Naval Divisions of the Left (south of the Viaduct) and Right (north thereof). Together, they comprised three ships, five trabbacoli, and 12 pirogues. The latter were divided into two divisions of six vessels each. The total personnel numbered 18 officers and 372 men, the commander being Lieutenant-Commander Sagredo. Overall command of the District rested in the hands of Colonel (later General) Ulloa, until the end of June. Subsequently, it fell to Lieutenant-Colonel Enrico Cosenz.

  Immediately after the taking of Fort Marghera, Radetzky ordered that the city of Venice should be brought under fire as rapidly as possible. To this end, on May 28th, work was undertaken on two new batteries, Nrs. 21 and 22. The former, sited behind the first piers of the Viaduct, was to comprise five Piedmontese 30 Pounder Paixhans cannon. Nr. 21, was to house two 30 Pounder long range mortars, and stood on rubble, north of the Viaduct, above the island of San Giuliano. By the next day, the mortar battery was able to throw 42 bombs at Venice, 28 of which hit the city.48 It was now in the front line.

  As related, just before the construction of the other batteries, the defenders had blown up eight of the Viaduct’s piers. The work went with comparative ease, as they had found it to be full of rubble caused by the weak explosion of the mines, which formed a suitable parapet. Work began on two batteries, one, Battery Nr. 22, on the left of the bridgehead, across from Nr. 23, both of which were just in from the two columns. A mortar battery, Nr. 22½ was placed between the above-mentioned columns. Three additional batteries were also constructed, two on San Giuliano, and one at Bottenigo, the latter to fire upon any light warships attempting to disturb other works, and also to prevent any attempt at a landing through the Bottenigo Channel, south of Fort Marghera.

  The batteries on San Giuliano being considered a particular threat by the defenders, a raid on the island by the now Lieutenant-Colonel Sirtori took place on the night of the 29th. Sirtori’s force of about 50 men landed on the island and approached the fort, from which however, they received a heavy fire, forcing them to pull back, re-embark, and return to Venice, having suffered about a dozen casualties. That same morning, a heavy fire from the Venetian guns had been directed at Battery Nr. 22, killing four men, and wounding six others.

  The new Austrian batteries constructed along the railway were partially shielded by traverses raised along the bridge, as protection from enfilading fire. The guns now in place were as follows:

  Across the rail line:

  Battery Nr. 21

  Battery Nr. 22

  Battery Nr. 22½

  Battery Nr. 23

  Two 30 Pounder Long Range Mortars

  Five Piedmontese Paixhans Cannon

  Two 30 Pounder Long Range Mortars

  Four 24 Pounder Cannon

  On San Giuliano:

  Battery Nr. 24

  Battery Nr. 25

  Four 24 Pounder and Two 18 Pounder Cannon

  Four 12 Inch Mortars

  Bottenigo, southwest of Fort Marghera

  Battery Nr. 26

  Four 18 Pounder Cannon

  Located inland from Fusina, the Bottenigo Battery covered the canals between there and Marghera, and flanked the Venetian batteries south of the Viaduct. On the evening of June 7th, Major Radaelli led an expedition of three Trabbacoli (Numbers 1, 6, and 9), with some 60 men to disrupt the construction of Battery Nr. 26, opening fire upon it with grapeshot and rockets. The attempt was unsuccessful, and Radaelli was forced to turn away, having lost four men mortally wounded, and another three wounded. Corporal Tichy, of 6/Landwehr/IR Koudelka, was awarded the Silver Medal for Bravery, II Class, for his conduct on that occasion.49

  That same evening, the pirogue Euredice, Lieutenant Pozzati, one 36 pounder carronade, moved to attack Fort San Giuliano. In the subsequent engagement, Pozzati and one man were wounded. Ensign Basevi assumed command, and was able to successfully disengage. The next morning, Basevi, still commanding Nr. 9, manoeuvered his pirogue division against Battery Nr. 26. Mindful of the previous encounter, Ulloa sent orders to him to pull back, but not before the pirogues had fired 62 rounds. During the day, the defending forces lost six killed or mortally wounded, and a further three wounded.

  The next few days saw continued shelling, but no significant results. During the 8th, a hit on Fort San Angelo della polvere killed three men, and dismounted one gun. On the 11th, the Austrians received 263 rounds from Fort San Antonio, 183 from Fort San Secondo, and 185 from naval vessels.50 From 06:00 on June 13th, five of the new Austrian batteries also commenced a steady, regular fire against the enemy.51 Numbers 22 and 24 targeted Fort San Antonio, Nr. 25, the city, and 21 and 22½, the communications between the two. This would continue until the end of opera
tions. Conversely, Fort San Secondo carried on a sustained bombardment of San Giuliano, smashing two gun carriages in Battery Nr. 24, and wounding one man.52 Every night, the damage on both sides would be repaired inasmuch as this was possible.

  Overnight on June 14th, a force of raiders in 30 barks landed, and crossed the Osselino Canal, some distance north of Campalto. Here, they were engaged by outposts of the Illyrian Banat Grenzer, and pushed back, losing two men killed, and leaving one boat behind. The next night, artillery exchanges continued.

  The Military Commission

  As the war crept closer to the city, political tensions inevitably grew. Calls for a change in command were heard, and political radicals sought, as the previous autumn, to politicise the Army and Navy. The latter activity was swiftly dealt with by President Manin, but it was equally clear to him that the unrest had widespread sympathy, and could not be ignored.

  The answer was for the creation of a new body, which would undertake a more positive and effective control of the prosecution of the conflict. Manin proposed to the Assembly that a committee of three individuals be appointed to run the war. These were General Ulloa, Lieutenant-Colonel Sirtori, and Naval Lieutenant Baldisserotto. This was accepted, and the War Committee duly instated. Ulloa had, however, neglected to consider General Pepe. Pepe was duly appointed as a figurehead President of the Commission.53

  Other Operations in the Lagoon

  For no clear reasons, the Imperial forces also made a foray into the particularly pestilential areas of the southern Lagoon, around Chioggia. Immediately after the fall of Marghera, General Coronini, with his Brigade, was ordered to the area. Fort Brondolo, the main defensive work, was the primary target. A formidable work, it had a garrison of 450 men, 150 of whom were artillery. It was armed as follows:

  Seven bronze 24 pounder cannon

  Ten iron 24 pounder cannon

  14 Austrian 18 pounder cannon

  Four 6 pounder howitzers

  Eight long bronze 12 pounder cannon

  Eight 8 inch mortars

  Initial shelling was made by field guns, but by June 2nd, work was taking place on two siege batteries, these being:

  Battery Nr, 1

  Four 12 pounder cannon, and four 7 pounder long howitzers

  Battery Nr. 2

  Two 30 pounder mortars

  In outpost fighting that day, two Austrians were killed. Overnight, and during the 3rd of June, in addition to the above, positions were prepared for two more howitzers, and one field gun of Foot Artillery Battery Nr. 19. Austrian casualties were one killed and five wounded. Fire was continued the next day, supporting the crossing of the River Brenta, by Brigade Kerpan. This was further supported by the steamers Vulcano, Captain Preu, and Dorothea, Captain Faber, and the brig Montecuccoli, Lieutenant-Commander Lewartowski, One gun was dismounted in Battery 1, and an NCO and three men wounded.54 An attack was also planned for June 6th, again with naval support, against the Chioggia forts, but it was cancelled, due to various difficulties.55

  On June 11th, orders came from the Field Marshal that Count Thurn and Vice-Admiral Dahlerup should indeed undertake operations against Fort Brondolo, and requested an operational plan to do so.56 From this point, work moved swiftly, various reconnaissance patrols being undertaken by engineer officers. On June 26th, Captain Nigl arrived with the guns, 16 18 pounder cannon, and two 60 pounder mortars. At the same time, arrangements were made to cooperate with the naval squadron.

  Trenches were begun that same night, and work continued for the next three days, with constant low-level small arms fire. In addition, the number of sick increased rapidly, in the unhealthy surroundings. On the night of the 29th, Battery Nr. 4, armed with six 18 pounder cannon, and Mortar Battery Nr. 1, joined the bombardment.

  Serious doubt, however, was beginning to surface over both the sick list, and the scale of the enterprise itself. It was clear that the difficulties had been underestimated, as had the size of the force necessary to achieve it. Furthermore, it was obviously the case that the fall of Venice would inevitably mean the fall of Chioggia and its defences. As a result of these circumstances, the operation was abandoned. Only the brigade of Major-General Dierkes was left to maintain the blockade.57

  The end of June in Venice

  On the evening of June 19th, an explosion occurred in the powder mill in Le Grazie, killing a number of people. This was a serious matter for the Venetians, as they were, as discussed, short of powder at a time when the army and navy were requiring more and more of it. In addition to the shortage of powder, its quality was also poor.58 On the night of the 20th, Fort San Antonio was heavily bombarded, with three men being killed, and a further two wounded.

  A further Austrian battery was constructed on San Giuliano on June 22nd, Nr 25½, commencing fire the next day. From the 25th, the following batteries were armed as follows:

  Battery Nr. 22

  Five 24 Pounder Cannon and Three 32 Pounder Cannon

  Battery Nr. 22½

  Two 30 Pounder Long Range Mortars

  Battery Nr. 24

  Four 24 Pounder Cannon

  Battery Nr. 25

  Four 12 Inch Mortars

  Battery Nr. 25½

  Three Paixhans Cannon

  Battery Nr. 26

  Four 18 Pounder Cannon

  The Death of Lieutenant-Colonel Rossarol, June 27th 1849 (contemporary lithograph)

  Due to the construction of Battery Nr. 26, Battery Nr. 23 and the battery in Fort Rizzardi were both disarmed. Finally, Batteries Nr. 19, rearmed with two 18 pounder cannon, and Nr. 20, with two 12 inch mortars, were both switched from an anti-ship role, to targetting the city.59

  On June 27th, Lieutenant-Colonel Rossarol, although running a high fever, insisted upon being in his position. While constantly encouraging his men, he was mortally wounded by a heavy shell. He was carried away, still exhorting his men, with cries of “To your guns! To your guns!”60 11 gunners were also killed or wounded. His name was a little later given to a new battery, which was constructed on the Viaduct, behind S. Antonio. The end of the month went as it had arrived; with a dismal and seemingly endless cannonade

  Summing up June, Captain Hauschka wrote that, “From May 28th, when the first of these batteries (Nr.21) began to fire, until June 29th, we didn’t manage to achieve anything useful. Whatever we could destroy during the afternoon, the enemy was able to rebuild rapidly during the night.61” Many in the city may have had a very different view.

  July

  Both sides ceased fire overnight on July 1st, although it was resumed with vigour the following morning. Batteries Nr. 19 and Nr. 20 joined the chorus on July 4th. The presence of these guns did not initially greatly inconvenience the Venetians, who found the already existing ones more of a problem. Lieutenant-Colonel Cosenz, appointed commander of the 1st District on June 16th, confided to his diary on July 5th that,

  The enemy fire, during the day yesterday, became heavier and more frequent. From midday to late in the evening, one strike did not wait for another one, and the battery of San Antonio was the only target. The Austrians opened two new batteries, one opposite the Bell Tower of Carpenedo, and another one a little further down, near Marghera.

  These batteries are not yet the ones that tormented ours; on the contrary, in the main, they didn’t succeed. The most deadly for us are the old ones, which are the ones placed at the mainstay of the bridge and in San Giuliano, which are augmented with many mortars. At about the half past eight PM, an enemy bomb fell inside the large square, badly wounded Captain Colussi, who was in discussion with Commandant Martini. He suffered a heavy contusion to his left thigh: at the same time a whirl of earth and of small stones shaken loose by the explosion of a bomb, badly wounded Lieutenant of the Naval Artillery Vith in the face. Fort San Secondo, today adjusted its fire in a truly admirable way: rare [were] the bombs thrown from it that didn’t hit the mark, and the sides of the batteries of San Giuliano. The bombs fell down this night along the bridge, and these, whic
h amounted to about 20, caused rather remarkable damage. The arches suffered much, and the powder-magazine needs some repairs. The losses amount to five dead and nine wounded persons. A gun remained knocked out by fire, another one became useless because of a crack suffered. The patrols pushed on, as usual, to the enemy outposts, but didn’t bring back any news.62

  With the addition of Batteries 20, and 25 ½, between the 4th and the 15th of July, the Imperial guns fired a further 11,137 rounds at the city. The almost useless Hungarian Company in Venetian service, which had behaved so poorly on San Giuliano, was converted, on the 6th, to field artillery.63 A new defensive battery was completed and armed, also on July 6th, on the Viaduct between Battery Roma and Fort San Antonio. Named Battery Rossarol, in honour of that officer, it was armed with 12 cannon and four mortars.64 That same night, an Austrian sortie was made.

  Sortie against Fort S. Antonio

  Over the previous few days, several small probes along theViaduct had been undertaken by Engineer Major Rzikowsky and Captain Brüll, of IR Koudelka, with small groups of men. As a result of these, the decision was made to launch a raid upon Fort San Antonio itself. Two vessels were to be used in this endeavour. The first, commanded by Major Rzikowsky, with a crew of one other officer and six pioneers, was to be exploded under the Viaduct. The second, full of empty powder casks, was a decoy. Rzikowsky and his men drifted off into the night, hoping the current would carry them to Fort San Antonio. In the meanwhile, Captain Brüll, with 20 volunteers from IR Koudelka, and 24 from Landwehr/IR Mazzuchelli, under Captain Auersperg, advanced along the Viaduct. A detachment of and 20 Styrian Schützen, Lieutenant Prellog, remained in reserve.

  Rzikowsky was able to wedge the boat between the third and fourth spans of the Viaduct, and then withdraw his men successfully. A few minutes after Midnight, on the 7th, the vessel exploded, damaging three spans, causing less damage than hoped, and rockets were fired off north of Marghera, as a diversion. Brüll’s men moved across the Viaduct, some climbing through the ruined piers, and others by swimming. They then entered Fort San Antonio, and after a brief encounter, drove back the Venetian pickets, capturing three. Captain Brüll was killed.