14 Jäger, pp. 391-394, & Kriegsbegebenheiten, 1849, Part III, p. 69. Ulloa reports that Major Cosenz was wounded, although he is not listed as such in Jäger.
15 It will be noted that the besieging batteries do not include Numbers 9, 10, 11, 12, or 13. This is because these, though planned, were not constructed, as their intended positions on the left of the 1st Parallel, were found to be unsuitable, Blasek, Part II, p. 228.
16 Radaelli, p. 302.
17 Pepe, Vol II, p. 171.
18 Ulloa, Vol. II, pp. 244-245, & Pepe, Vol II., pp. 172-177.
19 Ibid, p. 245. However, Ulloa’s original list of ordnance (see above) did not include 8 pounder cannon in the main fort, though they were present in other works. Of course, reassignments could have been made.
20 Blasek, Part 2, p. 229.
21 Ulloa, Vol. I, pp. 248-249.
22 Rzikowsky, Leopold, ‘Fragmente aus der geschichte der Belagerung von Venedig im Jahre 1849’, ÖMZ, 1860, Vol. I, pp. 14-15.
23 Schneidawind, Feldzug, p. 865. A Ducat was approximately 3.5 grams of gold.
24 Ibid, p. 17. Observers in the Capuchin Tower, in Mestre, noted that the bombardment made the building shake.
25 Marchesi, Giovanni Battista Cavedalis, I Commentari, p. 263, & Dumontet, p. 49. Dumontet would be rewarded with a Commission.
26 Ulloa, Vol. II, p. 254.
27 Ibid, p. 253. Carrano points out that the defence only had 90 pieces actually available for counter-battery fire, p. 168.
28 Radaelli, p. 308.
29 Vecchi, p. 128.
30 Radaelli, p. 309.
31 Kriegsbegebenheiten, 1849, Part 3, p. 84.
32 Hauschka, Die Belagerung von Malghera und Venedig, 1849, pp. 23-24.
33 Ulloa, p. 271, and Carrano, at length, from p. 173. Austrian accounts describe the explosion as resulting from shelling, for example Hauschka, p. 25, & Schneidawind, Feldzug, pp. 870-871.
34 Ulloa, Vol II, p. 270. Jäger gives a full list of casualties at Marghera, but cannot pinpoint all losses in late May, pp . 395-417. Ulloa’s figure must be as close as one can get.
35 Hauschka, p. 27. Note that the Austrian spelling of the fort’s name.
36 For a detailed account, see Trevelyan, Garibaldi’s Defence of the Roman Republic, pp. 122-133. 4,000 Spanish troops had also been despatched to Italy, although these did not enter the fighting.
37 Kriegsbegebenheiten, 1849, Part 2, pp. 106-107, and Schönhals, p. 360. The latter also gives the Austrian loss as 12 killed, and four officers and 50 men wounded.
38 Kriegsbegebenheiten, 1849, Part 2, p. 36. The small number of heavy guns is puzzling. Presumably the city was expected to submit without much resistance; certainly not the case the previous August.
39 Ibid, p. 42.
40 Ulloa, Vol II, p. 43.
41 Dahlerup, p. 88.
42 Pinelli, p. 994, Kriegsbegebenheiten 1849, Part 2, p. 64-66 and Rüstow, p. 448.
43 Rzikowsky, Part 3, ÖMZ, 1860, Vol. 3, p. 178.
44 Whilst information regarding the besieger’s batteries is both detailed and extensive, that for the defenders is not. As alluded to previously, given the hand to mouth nature of much of the defence, this is perfectly understandable, as the batteries were constantly armed, re-armed, and damaged. The main sources utilised are Carrano, pp. 196-200, Ulloa, pp. Vol. II, pp. 272-276, and Vecchi, pp. 455-457.
45 Cosenz, Enrico, ‘La difesa del ponte sull laguna in Venezia nel giugno-agosto 1849’, Rivista storica del Risorgimento Italiano, 1897, p. 501. This information is only mentioned in a footnote.
46 Pinelli, p. 1033, says that these were 24 pounder cannon.
47 Ibid, p. 1032.
48 Rzikowsky, Part 3, ÖMZ, 1860, p. 177.
49 Kriegsbegenheiten, 1849, Part 3, p. 113, Hauschka, p. 42, Radaelli, pp.348-349, and Ulloa, pp. 282-283. The losses are listed in Jäger for May 8th, pp. 418-419.
50 Ibid, p.114.
51 Ulloa, p. 285, says 07:00.
52 Blasek, Vol II, p. 257.
53 The efficient and modest Cavedalis was sidelined. Ulloa, Vol II, pp.289-292, Pepe certainly still considered himself to be in control, pp. 225-232.
54 Kriegsbegebenheiten 1849, Part 3, pp. 106-107, and Blasek, p. 264.
55 Hauschka, p. 31.
56 Blasek, p. 265.
57 Kriegsbegebenheiten 1849, Part 3, pp. 133-135, I Commentari, p. 341,.
58 Ulloa, pp. 295-296.
59 Blasek, p. 258.
60 Carrano, pp.226-227, and Pepe, pp. 241-244.
61 Hauschka, p. 43.
62 Enrico Cosenz, ‘La difesa del ponte sull laguna in Venezia nel giugno-agosto 1849’, Rivista storica del Risorgimento Italiano, Vol. 2, Parts 5 and 6, Turin 1897, pp. 500-501. A further one dead and seven wounded for July 5th were also reported by Cosenz.
63 Contarini, p. 170.
64 Debrunner states five cannon and four 8 inch mortars, p. 244.
65 The Corporal was awarded the Gold Medal for Bravery for this, and the Silver, Second Class, for his conduct in the action, Hauschka, p. 47.
66 Cosenz, pp. 502-503, Ulloa, pp. 307-308, and Hauschka, pp. 44-47.
67 Kriegsbegebenheiten, 1849, Part 3, p. 122.
68 Marchesi, I Commentari, pp. 337-338, and Kriegsbegebenheiten, 1849, Part 3, pp. 147-148. Franz Uchatius was also the first person to project a moving image, making him a pioneer of cinematography.
69 Hauschka, p. 55.
70 Kriegsbegebenheiten, 1849, Part 3, pp. 150-151, Radaelli, pp. 398-399, and Jäger, pp. 428-429. Radaelli was heavily criticised for his handling of the operation by Flagg, Vol. II, p. 434, amongst others.
71 Marchesi, I Commentari, pp. 369-370.
72 Dahlerup, pp. 176-177.
73 Benko von Boinek, pp. 634-635, and Marchesi, I Commentari, p. 337.
74 Against the advice of his generals, young Franz Josef had solicited the assistance of the Tsar in the war in Hungary. The Hungarians elected to surrender to Paskievich rather than the Imperial army.
75 Kriegsbegebenheiten, 1849, Part 3, p.172.
22
Aftermath
With the capture of Venice, Austrian rule in Upper Italy had been fully restored, and that of the Pope in Rome. Had the “dead hand of reaction” triumphed? Perhaps. Certainly, though, as a result, the unspeakable horrors later to be perpetrated by unbridled nationalism were spared, in some parts of Europe, for over half a century.
The old Field Marshal would live another eight years. His death in Milan, on the 5th of January 1858, provoked a genuine outpouring of grief throughout the Empire. His funeral was on a massive scale. ‘Vater’ Radetzky was laid to rest on the 12th. When the drums again sounded over the valley of the Ticino the following year, the Emperor’s army was commanded by men who had, literally, grown up under his tutelage.
Carlo Alberto had been wrong. Italy would not do it alone. Even with the Empire almost prostrate, and apparently disintegrating, victory had not come. The chance to alter that situation came with the rise to power, in Turin, of Camillo Benso di Cavour. Cavour, who had been the editor of the newspaper Il Risorgimento, was able to manoeuvre himself into the office of Prime Minister in 1852. He fully realised that the cause of Italian unification would require an ally, and this could only be either Great Britain or France, the latter also being the object of Daniele Manin’s hopes and aspirations. Cavour, however, also foresaw that it would take more than diplomacy to gain an ally.
His chance came with the outbreak of the Crimean War. Before it even began, he sounded out the King on the matter. He was fortunate to discover that the King was favourable to the idea. Cavour’s peers, however, were not. The enemy to them was Austria, not Russia, and this also applied to many army officers. Unlike him, they had not learned the lesson.
Although nearly coming to grief over Ecclesiastical affairs, Cavour was finally able to begin on January 9th 1855, to begin the debate proposing a Treaty of Alliance with Great Britain and France, under the terms of which a Sardinian Expeditio
nary Force would be sent to the Crimea. Three days later, the King’s mother died, delaying matters further. Finally, on the 10th of February, the bill was passed by the Chamber.
The Duke of Genoa, who was to have commanded the force, died on the morning of the following day from tuberculosis. His delicate health had declined very quickly. He was 32 years old. Command devolved to General Alberto La Marmora. The expedition, 18,058 strong, duly sailed for the Crimea. Some units were engaged in the battle of the Tchernaya River, near Sebastopol, on August 16th of that year, losing 14 killed, 170 wounded, and two missing. By contrast, 54 officers and 1,288 officers and men died of cholera in the campaign. This was the cost of a seat at the peace conference.
In fact, the matter of Italy was not even discussed at the conference. Seemingly, Cavour’s gamble had misfired. In fact, Napoleon III had not forgotten the House of Savoy. Even after a failed bomb attack upon him by none other than the anarchist Felice Orsini, he remained well disposed towards Sardinia, pledging his support in any conflict with Austria. There would, however, be a price. That price would be Nice and Savoy. Turin was quite prepared to sell the family name for Lombardy and Venetia.
When the conflict came in the Spring of 1859, a French Army did indeed march to the aid of Vittorio Emanuele. Even then, however, the House of Savoy was betrayed by its allies. Appalled by the horrors of great battle of Solferino, and unwilling to take on the Quadrilateral, Napoleon unilaterally agreed a peace with Franz Josef, whereby Lombardy passed to Sardinia, but Venetia remained inside the Empire. Only with another war, in 1866, with the then Italian Kingdom allied to Austria’s foe, Prussia, would Venetia finally pass to Vittorio-Emanuele. Between the two, Cavour masterminded the addition of the rest of the peninsula to the King’s Realm, much of it with Garibaldi’s assistance.
The failure of what has become known as The First Italian War of Independence was by no means inevitable. It is surely certain, however, that without Radetzky, it would be known as The Italian War of Independence.
Appendix I
Order of Battle
Imperial-Royal Austrian Army in Italy
Mid-March 18481
Commander
Field Marshal Count J. J. F. Radetzky
Chief of Staff
Colonel Johann, Count Wratislaw2
General-Adjutant
FML Carl von Schönhals
I ARMY CORPS
Commander
FML Eugen, Count Wratislaw
Chief of Staff
Lieutenant-Colonel von Nagy
Corps Adjutant
Major von Woyciechowski
Division, FML von Weigelsperg
Brigade, Major-General von Maurer
I/Ottocaner Grenz IR (Nr. 2)
I/Oguliner Grenz IR (Nr. 3)
11th Feld-Jäger Battalion
III/IR Archduke Albrecht (Nr.44)
Total – four battalions
Brigade, Major-General Samuel, Count Gyulai
II/Kaiser Jäger
III/Kaiser Jäger
IV/Kaiser Jäger
III/IR Geppert (Nr. 43)
Horse Artillery Battery Nr. 1 – six guns
Total – four battalions, one battery – six guns
Brigade, Major-General Rudolf, Count Schaaffgotsche
Hussar Regiment Sardinia (Nr. 5) – Eight squadrons
Horse Artillery Battery Nr. 3 – six guns
Total – eight squadrons, one battery – six guns
Division, FML von Wissiak
Brigade, Major-General Wohlgemuth
I & II/IR Kaiser (Nr. 1)
I & II/IR Paumgarten (Nr. 21)
2nd 6 Pounder Foot Artillery Battery
Total – four battalions, one battery – six guns
Brigade, Major-General Count Clam
I & II/IR Reisinger (Nr. 18)
I & II/IR Gyulai (Nr. 33)
1st 6 Pounder Foot Artillery Battery – six guns
Total – four battalions, one battery – six guns
Division, FML Carl Prince Schwarzenberg
Brigade, Major-General Georg von Schönhals
I & II/IR Archduke Albrecht (Nr. 44)
I & II/IR Rukawina (Nr. 51)
III/IR Ceccopieri (Nr. 23)
7th 6 Pounder Foot Artillery Battery – six guns
Total – five battalions, one battery – six guns
Brigade, Major-General Archduke Sigismund
I/Szluiner Grenz IR (Nr. 4)
I & II/IR Hohenlohe (Nr. 17)
III/IR Haugwitz (Nr. 38)
I/IR Archduke Sigismund (Nr. 45)
9th 6 Pounder Foot Artillery Battery – six guns
Total – five battalions, one battery – six guns
Division, FML Wocher
Brigade, Major-General Count Strassoldo
I/Warasdiner Kreuzer Grenz IR (Nr. 5)
I/Gradiscaner Grenz IR (Nr. 8)
10th Feld-Jäger Battalion
I & II/IR Prohaska (Nr. 7)
3rd 6 Pounder Foot Artillery Battery – six guns
Total – five battalions, one battery – six guns
Brigade, Major-General, Baron Rath
I & II/IR Geppert (Nr. 43)
Grenadier Battalion von Freysauff (IRs. 33, 52, 61)
Grenadier Battalion, Baron D’Anthon (IRs. 38, 43, 45)
8th 6 Pounder Foot Artillery Battery – six guns
Total – four battalions, one battery – six guns
Brigade, Major-General Archduke Ernst
Kaiser Uhlan Regiment (Nr. 4) – Six squadrons
Balem Dragoon Regiment (Nr. 2) – Six squadrons
Horse Artillery Battery Nr.4 – six guns
Total – twelve squadrons, one battery – six guns
Artillery Reserve
12 Pounder Battery Nr 1 – six guns
Rocket Battery Nr. 1 – six rocket tubes
Corps Totals – 35 battalions, 20 squadrons, 60 guns, 6 rocket tubes – approximately 40,000 men
II ARMY CORPS
Commander
FML Baron D’Aspre
Chief of Staff
Major von Schmerling
Corps Adjutant
Major Taude
Division, FML Count Wimpffen
Brigade, Major-General Friedrich Prince Liechtenstein
I/Warasdiner St. George Grenz IR (Nr, 6)
I/Peterwardeiner Grenz IR (Nr. 9)
8th Feld-Jäger Battalion
9th Feld-Jäger Battalion
Horse Artillery Battery Nr.2 – six guns
Total – four battalions, one battery – six guns
Brigade, Major-General Wilhelm Prince Taxis
I & II/IR Piret (Nr. 27)
I & II/IR Archduke Franz Carl (Nr. 52)
4th 6 Pounder Foot Artillery Battery – six guns
Total – four battalions, one battery – six guns
Division, FML Count Ludolf
Brigade, Major-General Auer
I/I Banal Grenz IR (Nr. 10)
I/II Banal Grenz IR (Nr, 11)
III/IR Zanini (Nr. 16)
III/IR Archduke Ferdinand d’Este (Nr. 26)
Total – four battalions
Brigade, Major-General Culoz
III/IR Wimpffen (Nr. 13)
I & II/IR Kinsky (Nr. 47)
Grenadier Battalion Angelmayer (IR’s 16, 26)
5th Garrison Battalion
Total – four 2/3 battalions
Division, Hannibal, Prince Taxis
Brigade, Major-General Boccalari
I & II/IR Archduke Franz d’Este (Nr. 32)
I & II/IR Haugwitz (Nr. 38)
6th Garrison Battalion
Four pioneer companies
5th 6 Pounder Foot Artillery Battery – six guns
Total – five battalions, four companies, one battery – six guns
Brigade, Major-General Johann Count Nugent
I/Brooder Grenz IR (Nr. 7)
III/IR Sigismund (Nr. 45)
I & II/IR Archduke Er
nst (Nr. 48)
6th 6 Pounder Foot Artillery Battery – six guns
Total – four battalions, one battery – six guns
Brigade, Major-General Ferdinand Baron Simbschen
Reuss Hussar Regiment (Nr. 7) – eight squadrons
Windischgrätz Chevauxleger Regiment (Nr. 4) – eight squadrons
Horse Artillery Battery Nr. 5 – six guns
Total – twelve squadrons, one battery – six guns
Artillery Reserve
12 Pounder Battery Nr 2 – six guns
Rocket Battery Nr. 2 – six rocket tubes
Corps Totals – 26 battalions, 4 companies, 16 squadrons, 42 guns, 6 rocket tubes – approximately 30,000 men
Army Total – 61 battalions, 4 companies, 36 squadrons, 108 guns – approximately 70,000 men, of whom 61,000 were infantry, 5,000 cavalry, and 4,000 in other corps.
___________________
1.
Hilleprandt, ‘1848’, ÖMZ.
2.
Superseded on May 12th, by FML Baron H. H. J. Hess. 360
Appendix II
Royal Piedmontese Army Troops in the Field
March 31st 18481
Commander
His Majesty, King Carlo Alberto
Royal Adjutants
Major-General Robillant
Major-General Scati
Aides
Major-General Count Deforax
Major-General Count Lazzari
Major-General Marquis Sambuy
War Minister
Major General Count Franzini
Chief of Staff
Lieutenant-General Salasco
Deputy Chief of Staff
Colonel Cossato
Commander, Artillery
Major-General, His Royal Highness, The Duke of Genoa
Artillery Chief of Staff
Major-General Rossi
Commander, Engineers
Major-General Chiodo
Engineer Chief of Staff
Major Michellini
Commander, Carabinieri
Colonel Avogadro
Radetzky's Marches Page 54