Modern Mind: An Intellectual History of the 20th Century

by Peter Watson

  70. Ibid., page 252. Osborne’s own account of reading the all is in John Osborne, A Better Class of Person: Autobiography 1929–1956, London: Faber & Faber, 1981, page 275.

  71. Neville, Op. cit., pages 252–253.

  72. Peter Mudford, ‘Drama since 1950’, in Dodsworth (editor), The Penguin History of Literature, Op. cit., page 396.

  73. For the autobiographical overlap of the play, see: Osborne, Op. cit., pages 239ff.

  74. Mudford, Op. cit., page 395.

  75. Ibid.

  76. Michael Hulse, ‘The Movement’, in Ian Hamilton (editor), The Oxford Companion to Twentieth-Century Poetry, Op. cit., page 368.

  77. Mudford, Op. cit., page 346.

  78. For Larkin’s library career, his reactions to it, and his feelings of timidity, see: Andrew Motion, Philip Larkin: A Writer’s Life, London: Faber & Faber, 1993, page 109ff. For other details about Larkin discussed in this section, see respectively: Alastair Fowler, ‘Poetry since 1950,’ in Dodsworth (editor), Op. cit., page 346; and Motion, Op. cit., pages 242–243 and 269, about publicity in The Times. Seamus Heaney’s poem, published as part of ‘A Tribute’ to Philip Larkin, George Hartley (editor), London: The Marvel] Press, 1988, page 39, ended with the line, ‘A nine-to-five man who had seen poetry.’

  79. For the ‘helpless bystander’ quote see Michael Kirkham, ‘Philip Larkin and Charles Tomlinson: Realism and Art’ in Boris Ford (ed.), From Orwell to Naipaul, vol. 8, New Pelican Guide to English Literature, London: Penguin, revised edn 1995, pages 286–289. Blake Morrison, ‘Larkin,’ in Hamilton (editor), Op. cit., page 288.

  80. Richard Hoggart, A Sort of Clowning: Life and Times, volume II, 1940–59, London: Chatto & Windus, 1990, page 175.

  81. Leavis said the book ‘had some value’ but that Hoggart ‘should have written a novel.’ See: Hoggart, Op. cit., page 206.

  82. Richard Hoggart, The Uses of Literacy, London: Chatto & Windus, 1957.

  83. Raymond Williams, Culture and Society, London: Chatto & Windus, 1958.

  84. For a good discussion see: Fred Inglis, Cultural Studies, Oxford: Blackwell, 1993, pages 52–56; and Fred Inglis, Raymond Williams, London and New York: Routledge, 1995, pages 162ff.

  85. Stefan Collini, ‘Introduction’ to: C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959, paperback 1969 and 1993, page vii.

  86. Ibid.

  87. Ibid., page viii. The fee for Snow’s lecture was 9 guineas (ie, 9.4p), the same rate as when the lecture was established in 1525. See: Philip Snow, Stranger and Brother: A Portrait of C. P. Snow, London: Macmillan, 1982, page 117.

  88. Ibid., page 35. See also Collini, Op. cit., page xx.

  89. C. P. Snow, Op. cit., page 14.

  90. Ibid., page 18.

  91. Ibid., pages 29ff

  92. Ibid., page 34.

  93. Ibid., pages 41ff.

  94. MacKillop, Op. cit., page 320.

  95. He was also ill. See: Philip Snow, Op. cit., page 130.

  96. Collini, Op. cit., pages xxxiiiff. This essay, 64 pages, is recommended. Among other things, it relates Snow’s lecture to the changing map of the disciplines in the last half of the century.

  97. Lionel Trilling, ‘A comment on the Leavis-Snow Controversy,’ Universities Quarterly, volume 17, 1962, pages 9–32. Collini, Op. cit., pages xxxviiiff.

  98. The subject was first debated on television in 1968. See: Philip Snow, Op. cit., page 147.

  CHAPTER 27: FORCES OF NATURE

  1. Michael Polanyi, Science, Faith and Society, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946.

  2. Ibid., page 14.

  3. Ibid., page 19.

  4. Ibid., pages 6off.

  5. Julian Symons, Introduction to: George Orwell, 1984, Everyman’s Library, 1993, page xvi. See also Ben Pimlott’s Introduction to Penguin paperback edition, 1989.

  6. James Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, or What is Happening in the World Now, New York: Putnam, 1941.

  7. For the problem in physics see: Paul R. Josephson, Physics and Politics in Revolutionary Russia, Los Angeles and Oxford: University of California Press, 1991. For the Lysenko problem in Communist China, see: Laurence Schneider, ‘Learning from Russia: Lysenkoism and the Fate of Genetics in China, 1950–1986,’ in Denis Fred Simon and Merle Goldman (editors), Science and Technology in PostMao China, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Council on East Asian Studies/Harvard University Press, 1989, pages 45–65.

  8. Krementsov, Stalinist Science, Op. cit., page 115.

  9. Ibid., page 107.

  10. Ibid., pages 129–131, 151 and 159.

  11. Ibid., pages 160 and 165.

  12. Ibid., page 169.

  13. Ibid., pages 174, 176 and 179.

  14. Michael Riordan and Lillian Hoddeson, ‘Birth of an Era’, Scientific American: Special Issue: ‘Solid State Century: The Past, Present and Future of the Transistor’, 22 January 1998, page 10.

  15. S. Millman (editor), A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell Systems: Physical Sciences (1923–1980), Thousand Oaks, California: Bell Laboratories, 1983, pages 97ff.

  16. Riordan and Hoddeson, Op. cit., page 11.

  17. Ibid.

  18. Ibid.

  19. Ibid., page 14.

  20. Brian Winston, Media, Technology and Society: A History from the Telegraph to the Internet, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, pages 216–217. And Chris Evans, The Mighty Micro, London: Gollancz, 1979, pages 49–50.

  21. Frank H. Rockett, ‘The Transistor,’ Scientific American: Special Issue: ‘Solid State Century: The Past, Present and Future of the Transistor’, 22 January 1998, pages 18ff.

  22. Ibid., page 19.

  23. Winston, Op. cit., page 213.

  24. Riordan and Hoddeson, Op. cit., pages 14–15.

  25. Ibid., page 13.

  26. Though the publicity helped the sales of the transistor. See: Winston, Op. cit., page 219.

  27. Ibid., page 221.

  28. Paul Strathern, Crick, Watson and DNA, London: Arrow, 1997, pages 37–38. James D. Watson, The Double Helix, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968; Penguin paperback, 1990, page 20.

  29. Strathern, Op. cit., page 42.

  30. Ibid., page 44.

  31. For rival groups, and the state of research at the time, see: Bruce Wallace, The Search for the Gene, Op. cit., pages 108ff.

  32. Strathern, Op. cit., page 45.

  33. Watson, Op. cit., page 25.

  34. Strathern, Op. cit., page 49.

  35. Ibid., pages 50–53.

  36. Watson, Op. cit., page 79.

  37. Strathern, Op. cit., page 56.

  38. Watson, Op. cit., pages 82–83. Strathern, Op. cit., pages 57–58.

  39. Watson, Op. cit., page 91. Strathern, Op. cit., page 60.

  40. Watson, Op. cit., page 123.

  41. According to Pauling’s biographer, Thomas Hager, ‘Historians have speculated that the denial of Pauling’s passport for the May Royal Society meeting was critical in preventing him from discovering the structure of DNA, that if he had attended he would have seen Franklin’s work …’ Hager, Force of Nature, Op. cit., page 414.

  42. Strathern, Op. cit., pages 70–71.

  43. There was mutual respect. Pauling already wanted Crick to come to Caltech. See Hager, Op. cit., page 414. Strathern, Op. cit., page 72.

  44. Strathern, Op. cit., page 81.

  45. Ibid., page 84, where there is a useful diagram.

  46. Watson, Op. cit., page 164.

  47. Strathern, Op. cit., page 82.

  48. Watson wrote an epilogue about her in his book, praising her courage and integrity. He admitted, too late, that he had been wrong about her. Watson, Op. cit., pages 174–175. Strathern, Op. cit., pages 83–84.

  49. Alan Shepard and Deke Slayton, Moon Shot, New York: Turner/Virgin, 1994, page 37.

  50. James Harford, Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat the Americans to the Moon, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997, page 121.

  51. See
Shepard and Slayton, Op. cit., page 39, for Reuters more fulsome headlines. Harford, Op. cit., page 130.

  52. Although Sputnik I wasn’t large, it was still bigger than what the US planned. See: Charles Murray and Catherine Bly Cox, Apollo: The Race for the Moon, London: Secker & Warburg, 1989, page 23. See also Harford, Op. cit., page 122.

  53. See Young, Silcock, and Peter Dunn, Journey to the Sea of Tranquility, London: Jonathan Cape, 1969, pages 80–81 for discussion of cost and security.

  54. Harford, Op. cit. See note 50 supra.

  55. See Shepard and Slayton, Op. cit., pages 38–39 for other personal details.

  56. Harford, Op. cit., pages 49–50.

  57. Ibid., page 51.

  58. Robert Conquest, The Great Terror, London: Macmillan, 1968; and the same author’s, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps, New York: Viking, 1979.

  59. Harford, Op. cit., page 57.

  60. Ibid., page 91.

  61. After Vanguard was announced, the Russians had gloated they would beat the Americans. See: Young, Silcock et al., Op. cit., page 67.

  62. For the impact in America, see: Murray and Cox, Op. cit., page 77.

  63. Harford, Op. cit., pages 114–115.

  64. Ibid., page 110.

  65. But not on Eisenhower, and not at first. See: Young, Silcock et al., Op. cit., page 68.

  66. See: Young, Silcock et al., Op. cit., page 74, one of several contemporary accounts on the subject that makes no reference to Korolev. Harford, Op. cit., page 133.

  67. Shepard and Slayton, Op. cit., page 42.

  68. Harford, Op. cit., page 132.

  69. Sputnik 2 had an even bigger effect than Sputnik 1. See: Young, Silcock et al., Op. cit., pages 70–71.

  70. Harford, Op. cit., page 135.

  71. Ibid., pages 135–136.

  72. For the effect of Sputnik’s launch on Eisenhower’s policy, see: Young, Silcock et al., Op. cit., pages 82ff.

  73. Richard Leakey, One Life, London: Michael Joseph, 1983, page 49.

  74. Virginia Morrei], Ancestral Passions: The Leakey family and the Quest for Humankind’s Beginnings, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995, page 57.

  75. Mary Leakey, Olduvai Gorge: My Search for Early Man, London: Collins, 1979, page 13.

  76. Morrell, Op. cit., pages 80–89.

  77. Partly as a result he wrote books on other aspects of East Africa. See for example, L. S. B. Leakey, Kenya: Contrasts and Problems, London: Methuen, 1936.

  78. Morrell, Op. cit., pages 163–174.

  79. Mary Leakey, Op. cit., pages 83ff.

  80. See Mary Leakey, ibid., pages 52–53 for a detailed map of the gorge.

  81. Morrell, Op. cit., page 178.

  82. Ibid., pages 180–181.

  83. Mary Leakey, Op. cit., page 75. See also: Richard Leakey, Op. cit., page 50.

  84. Morrell, Op. cit., page 181.

  85. Ibid.

  86. Mary Leakey, Op. cit., page 74.

  87. L. S. B. Leakey, ‘Finding the World’s Earliest Man’, National Geographic Magazine, September 1960, pages 421–435. Morrell, Op. cit., page 194.

  88. Morrell, Op. cit., page 196.

  89. Ibid., and Richard Leakey, Op. cit., page 49.

  90. Claude Lévi-Strauss and Didier Eribon, Conversations with Lévi-Strauss, Op. cit., page 119.

  91. Karl Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery, London: Hutchinson, 1959. (Originally published in German in Vienna in 1934.) See especially, chapters I, IV and V

  92. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962; 2nd edition, enlarged, University of Chicago Press, 1970, especially chapter VI, pages 52ff.

  93. Ibid., page 151.

  94. Ibid., pages 137ff.

  95. See the Postscript, pages 174ff, in the second, enlarged edition, referred to in Note 92 above.

  CHAPTER 28: MIND MINUS METAPHYSICS

  1. John Russell Taylor, Hitch: The Life and Work of Alfred Hitchcock, London: Faber & Faber, 1978, page 255.

  2. Donald Spoto, The Life of Alfred Hitchcock: The Dark Side of Genius, London: Collins, 1983, page 420. James Pallot, Jacob Levich et al, The Fifth Virgin Film Guide, London: Virgin Books, 1996, pages 553–554.

  3. Ibid., pages 421–423.

  4. Russell Taylor, Op. cit., page 256.

  5. Spoto, Op. cit., pages 423–424.

  6. Ibid., page 420.

  7. R. D. Laing, The Divided Self: An Existential Study in Sanity and Madness, London: Tavistock, 1959. See also: Adrian Laing, R. D. Laing: A Life, London: Peter Owen, 1994, chapter 8, pages 77–78.

  8. Gilbert Ryle, The Concept of Mind, London: Hutchinson, 1949.

  9. Ibid., pages 36ff.

  10. Ibid., pages 319ff.

  11. S. Stephen Hilmy, The Later Wittgenstein: The Emergence of a New Philosophical Method, Oxford: Blackwell, 1987, page 191.

  12. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, Oxford: Blackwell, 1953 (edited by G. E. M. Anscombe and R. Rhees). Wittgenstein had begun writing this book in 1931 – see Hilmy, Op. cit., page 50.

  13. P. M. S. Hacker, Wittgenstein, Op. cit., page 8.

  14. Though even professional philosophers do refer to them as games. And see Hilmy, Op. cit., chapters 3 and 4.

  15. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, Op. cit., page 109, quoted in Hacker, Op. cit., page 11.

  16. Magee (editor), Op. cit., page 89.

  17. Hacker, Op. cit., page 16.

  18. Ibid., page 18.

  19. Many of the paragraphs were originally written at the end of World War Two, which is why he may have chosen pain as an example. See: Monk, Op. cit., pages 479–480. See also Hilmy, Op. cit., page 134, and Hacker, Op. cit., page 21.

  20. Wittgenstein, Op. cit., page 587, quoted in Hacker, Op. cit., page 24.

  21. Ibid., page 31.

  22. Magee (editor), Op. cit., page 90; and Hacker, Op. cit., page 40.

  23. Martin L. Gross, The Psychological Society, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979, page 200.

  24. Ibid., page 201.

  25. H. M. Halverson, ‘Genital and Sphincter Behavior in the Male Infant, ’ Journal of Genetic Psychology, volume 56, pages 95–136. Quoted in Gross, Op. cit., page 220.

  26. See also: H. J. Eysenck, Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire, London: Viking, 1985, especially chapters 5 and 6.

  27. Ralph Linton, Culture and Mental Disorder, Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1956, quoted in Gross, Op. cit., page 219.

  28. Ray Fuller (editor), Seven Pioneers of Psychology, Op. cit., page 126.

  29. B. F. Skinner, Science and Human Behavior, Glencoe: The Free Press, 1953.

  30. Ibid., pages 263ff.

  31. Ibid., page 375.

  32. Ibid., pages 377–378.

  33. Fuller (editor). Op. cit., page 113.

  34. B. F. Skinner, Verbal Behavior, New York: Apple-ton-Century-Crofts, 1957.

  35. Ibid., pages 81ff.

  36. Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, The Hague: Mouton, 1957. See also: Roger Smith, The Fontana History of the Human silences, Op. cit., page 672. And: John Lyons, Chomsky, London: Fontana/Collins, 1970, page 14.

  37. Noam Chomsky, Language and the Mind, New York: Harcourt Brace, 1972, pages 13 and 100ff. Lyons, Op. cit., page 18.

  38. Lyons, Op. cit., pages 105–106.

  39. Fuller (editor), Op. cit., page 117.

  40. Published by Pelican as: John Bowlby, Child Care and the Growth of Love, 1953.

  41. Ibid., pages 18ff.

  42. Ibid., pages 5off.

  43. Ibid., pages 161ff.

  44. Fernando Vidal, Piaget Before Piaget, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1994, pages 206–207.

  45. Peter E. Bryant, ‘Piaget’, in Fuller (editor), Op. cit., page 133.

  46. Two books out of the many Piaget wrote provide a good introduction to his work and methods: The Language and Thought of the Child, London: Kegan Paul, Trench and Trubner, 1926; and Six Psychological Studies, London: Univers
ity of London Press, 1968.

  47. Bryant, Op. cit., pages 135ff.

  48. Vidal, Op. cit., page 230.

  49. Bryant, Op. cit., page 136.

  50. Vidal, Op. cit., page 231.

  51. Weatherall, In Search of a Cure, Op. cit., page 254.

  52. Ibid., page 255.

  53. Ibid., page 257.

  54. David Healy, The Anti-Depressant Era, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1997, page 45.

  55. Ibid., pages 61–62. Weatherall, Op. cit., pages 258–259.

  56. Healy, Op. cit., pages 52–54, which discusses the influential Nature article of 1960 on this subject.

  57. Gregory Bateson, ‘Toward a Theory of Schizophrenia,’ Behavioral Science, volume I, Number 4, 1956.

  58. Adrian Laing, Op. cit., page 138.

  59. Ibid., page 71. Former patients told Laing’s son, when he was researching his book on his father, that LSD was beneficial. See: page 71.

  60. Jamison and Eyerman, Seeds of the Sixties, Op. cit., pages 122–123.

  61. Ibid., page 123.

  62. Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1964.

  63. Marcuse, Op. cit., page 156. Jamison and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 127.

  64. Ibid., pages 193ff.

  65. See: Herbert Marcuse, Counter-Revolution and Revolt, London: Allen Lane, 1972, page 105, for the ‘antagonistic unity’ between art and revolution in this context.

  CHAPTER 29: MANHATTAN TRANSFER

  1. Moshe Pearlman, The Capture of Adolf Eichmann, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1961, especially pages 113–120.

  2. Young-Bruehl, Hannah Arendt, Op. cit., pages 328ff.

  3. Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil, New York: Viking, 1963, enlarged and revised edition, Penguin, 1994, page 49.

  4. Ibid., page 92.

  5. Young-Bruehl, Op. cit., page 337.

  6. Arendt, Op. cit., page 252.

  7. See Young-Bruehl, Op. cit., pages 347–378 for a full discussion of the controversy, including its overlap with the assassination of President Kennedy.

  8. Laura Fermi, Illustrious Immigrants, Op. cit., pages 153–154.

  9. Erik Erikson, Childhood and Society, New York: W. W. Norton, 1950; Penguin edition 1965, especially Part 4, ‘Youth and the Evolution of Identity.’