24. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:148.
25. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 53.
26. Ibid., 54–55.
27. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:157, and Manchester, American Caesar, 100–103.
28. Manchester, American Caesar, 103.
29. Perret, Old Soldiers Never Die, 94, and MacArthur, Reminiscences, 56–58.
30. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 59.
31. See citation in MacArthur, Reminiscences, 67.
32. Robert H. Ferrell, The Question of MacArthur’s Reputation: Côte de Châtillon, October 14–16, 1918 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2008); MacArthur, Reminiscences, 67; and James, Years of MacArthur, 1:187, 223–24.
33. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 72.
34. Ibid., 77.
35. Ibid., 77–78.
36. Ibid., 79–82; Perret, Old Soldiers Never Die, 120–21; and Stephen
A. Ambrose, “MacArthur as West Point Superintendent,” in MacArthur and the American Century: A Reader, ed. William M. Leary (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001), 20–21. As MacArthur neared the end of his USMA assignment, he married Louise Cromwell Brooks in February 1922, but they divorced in 1929.
37. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:295–97.
38. Ibid., 300–305, and MacArthur, Reminiscences, 84.
39. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 85.
40. Ibid., 86–87.
41. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:325–33, and MacArthur, Reminiscences, 88.
42. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 88–89.
43. Peter J. Schifferle, America’s School for War: Fort Leavenworth, Officer Education, and Victory in World War II (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2010), 25.
44. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 91–92.
45. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:357–71, 367, 458–60, and Perret, Old Soldiers Never Die, 177.
46. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 92.
47. Ibid., 92–95; Perret, Old Soldiers Never Die, 154–61; and James, Years of MacArthur, 1:389–414.
48. Frank, MacArthur, 21–25.
49. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:479–94, and Manchester, American Caesar, 177–80.
50. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 106–7, and James, Years of MacArthur, 1:494–95, 525.
51. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:513, and Paul P. Rogers, The Good Years: MacArthur and Sutherland (New York: Praeger, 1990), 39–40.
52. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 109, and Louis Morton, The Fall of the Philippines (1953; repr., Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 2004), 19.
53. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 109.
54. Ibid., 110.
55. Ibid., 110–11.
56. Ibid., 113–14.
57. Ibid., 117–20, and Thomas E. Griffith Jr., MacArthur’s Airman: General George C. Kenney and the War in the Southwest Pacific (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998), 49.
58. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 121.
59. Ibid., 127–28.
60. Ibid., 145; Perret, Old Soldiers Never Die, 274–75; Rogers, The Good Years, 190–93; and James, Years of MacArthur, 2:105–6.
61. See note in Kevin C. Holzimmer, “Walter Krueger, Douglas MacArthur, and the Pacific War: The Wadke-Sarmi Campaign as a Case Study,” Journal of Military History 59.4 (October 1995): 667–68.
62. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 147, 152, and James, Years of MacArthur, 2:130–32.
63. Harry A. Gailey, MacArthur’s Victory: The War in New Guinea, 1943–1944 (New York: Presidio Press, 2004), 7–14; Samuel Eliot Morison, History of the United States Naval Operations in World War II (Boston: Little, Brown, 1963), 30–32; and Samuel Milner, Victory in Papua (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, 1957), 18–23.
64. Griffith, MacArthur’s Airman, 51–52.
65. Ibid.; Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 1, Plans and Early Operations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 418–21; and MacArthur, Reminiscences, 157.
66. Griffith, MacArthur’s Airman, 53, and Gailey, MacArthur’s Victory, 14–18.
67. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 173.
68. Ibid., 159–62, and Milner, Victory in Papua, 77–88.
69. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 163–64, and Jay Luvaas, Dear Miss Em: General Eichelberger’s War in the Pacific, 1942–1945 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972), 32–33.
70. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 165–66.
71. Ibid., 168–69.
72. Ibid., 170.
73. For more on New Guinea operations, see Stephen R. Taaffe, MacArthur’s Jungle War: The 1944 New Guinea Campaign (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998), and John Miller Jr., Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul (1959; repr., Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center for Military History, 2006).
74. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 180.
75. Holzimmer, “Walter Krueger, Douglas MacArthur, and the Pacific War,” 668; MacArthur, Reminiscences, 189; and Taaffe, MacArthur’s Jungle War, 101–3.
76. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 194–96.
77. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:521–33.
78. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 210–11.
79. Ibid., 212–16.
80. Ibid., 222.
81. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:604–10, and Edward J. Drea, MacArthur’s ULTRA: Codebreaking and the War against Japan, 1942–1945 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992), 180–86.
82. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:616–22.
83. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 242–47.
84. Ibid., 253.
85. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 258, and Perret, Old Soldiers Never Die, 462.
86. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:765–71.
87. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 261.
88. Ibid.
89. Ibid., 265, 269–304.
90. Manchester, American Caesar, 545–60. For more on MacArthur’s role in Japan’s occupation, see Robert B. Textor, “Success in Japan— Despite Some Human Foibles and Cultural Problems,” in Leary, MacArthur and the American Century, 258–86, and David J. Valley, Gaijin Shogun: General Douglas MacArthur, Stepfather of Postwar Japan (San Diego: Sektor, 2000), xi.
91. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 318–19.
92. James, Years of MacArthur, 3:119–39, and Manchester, American Caesar, 597–605.
93. Perret, Old Soldiers Never Die, 522–23; James, Years of MacArthur, 3:174–92; Samuel Eliot Morison, The Oxford History of the American People (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 1062; and William J. Sebald, With MacArthur in Japan: A Personal History of the Occupation (New York: W. W. Norton, 1965), 11. For more current assessments of the occupation, see John W. Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), and Takemae Eiji, Inside GHQ: The Allied Occupation of Japan and Its Legacy (New York: Continuum, 2002).
94. James, Years of MacArthur, 3:436–85. See also H. Pat Tomlinson, “Inchon: The General’s Decision,” in Leary, MacArthur and the American Century, 345–51.
95. Perret, Old Soldiers Never Die, 559–60.
96. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 360–63.
97. Russell Weigley, The American Way of War: A History of United States Military Strategy and Policy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1977), 390.
98. Bradley quoted in ibid., 390; Manchester, American Caesar, 764; and MacArthur, Reminiscences, 386.
99. Clay Blair, The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950–1953 (New York: Times Books, 1987), 758–61, 783–88.
100. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 405.
101. Perret, Old Soldiers Never Die, 581–83.
102. Ibid., 584–85.
103. B. C. Mossman and M. W. Stark, “General of the Army, Douglas MacArthur, State Funeral, 5 April 1964,” in Mossman and Stark, The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funerals, 1921–1969 (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, 1991), 216, and Manchester, American Caesar, 839. “General of the Army Douglas MacArthur died on 5 April 1964 in Walter Reed General Hospital at the age of eighty-four. Earlier President Kennedy had authorized
a State Funeral, and President Johnson confirmed the directive when he ordered that General MacArthur be buried ‘with all the honor a grateful nation can bestow on a departed hero.’” See www.macarthurmemorial.org (accessed September 21, 2012) for more information on the MacArthur Memorial in Norfolk, Va.
104. For more on the Canadian Royal Military College award, see www.rmc.ca/aca/ac-pe/ug-apc/spa-bprpa-pr-eng.asp (accessed September 21, 2012).
References
Blair, Clay. The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950–1953. New York: Times Books, 1987.
Craven, Wesley Frank, and James Lea Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 1, Plans and Early Operations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948.
Dower, John W. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. New York: W. W. Norton, 1999.
Drea, Edward J. MacArthur’s ULTRA: Codebreaking and the War against Japan, 1942–1945. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992.
Ferrell, Robert H. The Question of MacArthur’s Reputation: Côte de Châtillon, October 14–16, 1918. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2008.
Frank, Richard B. MacArthur. New York: Palgrave, 2007.
Gailey, Harry A. MacArthur’s Victory: The War in New Guinea, 1943–1944. New York: Presidio Press, 2004.
Griffith, Thomas E., Jr. MacArthur’s Airman: General George C. Kenney and the War in the Southwest Pacific. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998.
Holzimmer, Kevin C. “Walter Krueger, Douglas MacArthur, and the Pacific War: The Wadke-Sarmi Campaign as a Case Study.” Journal of Military History 59.4 (October 1995): 661–85.
James, D. Clayton. The Years of MacArthur, vol. 1, 1880–1941. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970.
———. The Years of MacArthur, vol. 2, 1941–1945. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975.
———. The Years of MacArthur, vol. 3, 1945–1964. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985.
Leary, William M., ed. MacArthur and the American Century: A Reader. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001.
———. We Shall Return: MacArthur’s Commanders and the Defeat of Japan, 1942–1945. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1988.
Luvaas, Jay. Dear Miss Em: General Eichelberger’s War in the Pacific, 1942–1945. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972.
MacArthur, Douglas. Reminiscences: Douglas MacArthur, General of the Army. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
Manchester, William. American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur, 1880–1964. New York: Dell, 1978.
Miller, John, Jr., Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul. 1959. Reprint, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center for Military History, 2006.
Milner, Samuel. Victory in Papua. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, 1957.
Morison, Samuel Eliot. History of the United States Naval Operations in World War II. Boston: Little, Brown, 1963.
———. The Oxford History of the American People. New York: Oxford University Press, 1965.
Morton, Louis. The Fall of the Philippines. 1953. Reprint, Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 2004.
Pearlman, Michael D. Truman & MacArthur: Policy, Politics, and the Hunger for Honor and Renown. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008.
Perret, Geoffrey. Old Soldiers Never Die: The Life of Douglas MacArthur. New York: Random House, 1996.
Rogers, Paul P. The Good Years: MacArthur and Sutherland. New York: Praeger, 1990.
Schifferle, Peter J. America’s School for War: Fort Leavenworth, Officer Education, and Victory in World War II. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2010.
Sebald, William J. With MacArthur in Japan: A Personal History of the Occupation. New York: W. W. Norton, 1965.
Taaffe, Stephen R. MacArthur’s Jungle War: The 1944 New Guinea Campaign. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998.
Takemae, Eiji. Inside GHQ: The Allied Occupation of Japan and Its Legacy. New York: Continuum, 2002.
Valley, David J. Gaijin Shogun: General Douglas MacArthur, Stepfather of Postwar Japan. San Diego: Sektor, 2000.
Weigley, Russell. The American Way of War: A History of United States Military Strategy and Policy. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1977.
4
Dwight D. Eisenhower
Sean N. Kalic
General and President Dwight D. Eisenhower has come to represent many things to many different people of several generations. For the veterans of World War II, he was the commanding general who planned and oversaw the initial landings in North Africa and Italy. Next, as supreme Allied commander of Europe, he planned, oversaw the preparation of, and made the decision to launch Operation Overlord on the beaches of Normandy. While achieving the Allied victory in Europe, Eisenhower rose to the rank of five-star general. He briefly took a civilian position as president of Columbia University before Harry S. Truman asked him to become supreme Allied commander of the new North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in the immediate postwar period. After retiring from military service, Eisenhower found another way to continue to serve his country in the midst of the Korean War.
In 1952 Eisenhower ran as the Republican candidate for president of the United States. After winning the presidency, Eisenhower led the United States through a politically turbulent period in the Cold War. Negotiating a truce to the Korean War, supporting covert actions against Communists in Iran and Guatemala, providing funding to the French for their war against Ho Chi Minh and the Viet Minh in Indochina, and firmly entrenching a reliance on nuclear weapons in the United States military are some of the primary actions and decisions made by Eisenhower during his tenure as the president.
Beyond his steadfast efforts to combat the forces of Communism, Eisenhower also supported the development of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; negotiated treaties for the preservation of the seabed and Antarctica, with an objective of keeping all frontiers free for the sake of scientific research for all; and encouraged the United States to invest heavily in science and math education in the context of the space race with the Soviet Union. While supporting these various military and scientific endeavors, Eisenhower remained persistently committed to ensuring that the United States remained fiscally sound and determined to avoid bankrupting itself, despite its position as the primary bulwark against the expansionistic designs of the Soviet Union and its satellite nations.
From his earliest days in Texas to his final days at his farm in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, the life of Dwight D. Eisenhower can be characterized as one of “duty, honor, country.” He consistently demonstrated a strong work ethic, phenomenal leadership skills, and steadfast belief in the goodness of the United States. This chapter details his strong commitment to service to the United States first in the military and later as president of the United States.1
In Denison, Texas, on October 14, 1890, David Jacob and Ida Elizabeth Eisenhower welcomed their third son, Dwight David Eisenhower. David and Ida had met seven years earlier (1883) at Lane University in Lecompton, Kansas.2 David, who had aspirations of studying to become an engineer, had moved to Hope, Kansas, with his family in the 1870s, as part of a group of River Brethren, a branch of the Mennonite sect that pursued farming. David’s father, Jacob Eisenhower, was one of the leaders of the sect and had a 160-acre tract of land in Dickinson County, Kansas.3 The county seat was Abilene, which was approximately twenty miles northeast of Jacob Eisenhower’s farm. In the 1870s the city of Abilene was the railhead for the “northern end of the Chisholm Trail” and served as the embarkation point for cattle as they made their way to the stock-yards in Chicago. It was a “rough, wild, and dangerous place” for its 8,000 residents at the time, not yet the quiet, bucolic community where David and Ida would later raise their family.4
Ida Stover was from the Shenandoah Valley village of Mount Sidney, Virginia. Upon the death of her mother when Ida was fifteen, Ida’s father, who had an additional ten children to care for (seven boys and three girls), sent Ida to live with her maternal grandparents.5 Starting at age sixteen, Ida wo
rked as a housekeeper and later as a schoolteacher. In 1882 two of Ida’s brothers moved to Topeka, Kansas, and Ida joined them there.6 A year later she enrolled in Lane University with the intention of studying music. There she met David Eisenhower.
David and Ida married on September 23, 1885, without finishing their studies at the university. Using $2,000 his father gave him upon his marriage, David Eisenhower partnered with Milton Good to start a general store in Abilene. In 1888, after only three years, the store failed. By that time David and Ida had one son, Arthur, and were expecting a second child. Needing a livelihood, David left his family in Abilene and went southwest to search for work. He found employment with the railroad in Denison, Texas. In January 1889 David and Ida’s second son, Edgar, was born. Shortly thereafter Ida, Arthur, and Edgar moved to Denison to be with David.
Having reliable work and a steady income, David and Ida had a third son, Dwight David, in October 1890, followed by a fourth son, Roy, just a year later. With the expanding demands of his family, David’s modest paycheck from the railroad made it increasingly difficult to meet expenses. In 1892 David and Ida decided to move their family back to Abilene, after David’s brother-in-law Christian Musser offered him a job at the Belle Creamery there. David accepted the job and would be in charge of maintaining the refrigeration equipment. Abilene would be home for David and Ida and their eventual six sons. More important, Abilene would be the town in which Dwight D. Eisenhower spent the majority of his formative years.
Eisenhower recounts in At Ease that, after the family had moved from the house they rented on South Second Street to the three-acre farm on South Fourth Street in Abilene, he and his brothers had a bevy of chores to perform.7 Eisenhower’s father worked at the creamery from 6:00 A.M. until 5:00 P.M. six days a week. This left the majority of the duties of the small farm to be performed by Ida and her sons. After listing the seemingly endless tasks such as cooking, doing dishes, tending to chickens and cows, weeding the vegetable garden, and storing fruits and vegetables for winter, Eisenhower describes the frivolity and competitiveness of brothers in the early years of the twentieth century.8 By this time Abilene had matured from its boisterous cow-town days into a respectable and quiet community; there Eisenhower and his family lived a very modest and happy life. In fact, he states: “Though our family was far from affluent, I never heard a word even distantly of self-pity. If we were poor—and I’m not sure that we were by the standards of the day—we were unaware of it. We were always well fed, adequately clothed, and housed. Each boy was permitted to earn his own money and spend it according to his taste and best judgment.”9
Generals of the Army Page 13