Strategy
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2. Gordon Wood, “History Lessons,” New York Review of Books, March 29, 1984, p. 8 (Review of Barbara Tuchman’s March of Folly).
3. Speech to the National Defense Executive Reserve Conference in Washington, DC, November 14, 1957, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1957 (National Archives and Records Service, Government Printing Office), p. 818. He then observed “the very definition of ‘emergency’ is that it is unexpected, therefore it is not going to happen the way you are planning.”
4. Hew Strachan, “The Lost Meaning of Strategy,” Survival 47, no. 3 (2005): 34.
5. Timothy Crawford, “Preventing Enemy Coalitions: How Wedge Strategies Shape Power Politics,” International Security 35, no. 4 (Spring 2011): 189.
6. Jon T. Sumida, “The Clausewitz Problem,” Army History (Fall 2009), 17–21.
7. Isaiah Berlin, “On Political Judgment,” New York Review of Books (October 3, 1996).
8. Bruce Kuklick, Blind Oracles: Intellectuals and War from Kennan to Kissinger (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 16.
9. Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition, 2nd revised edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 200. First published 1958.
10. Steven Lukes, Power: A Radical View (London: Macmillan, 1974).
11. Charles Tilly, “The Trouble with Stories,” in Stories, Identities, and Social Change (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), 25–42.
12. Naomi Lamoreaux, “Reframing the Past: Thoughts About Business Leadership and Decision Making Under Certainty,” Enterprise and Society 2 (December 2001): 632–659.
13. Daniel M. G. Raff, “How to Do Things with Time,” Enterprise and Society 14, no. 3 (forthcoming, September 2013).
14. Daniel Kahneman, Thinking Fast and Slow, 199, 200–201 206, 259 (see chap. 38, n. 44).
15. Nassim Taleb, The Black Swan: The Impact of the Highly Improbable (New York: Random House, 2007), 8.
16. Joseph Davis, ed., Stories of Change: Narrative and Social Movements (New York: State University of New York Press, 2002).
17. Francesca Polletta, It Was Like a Fever, see Chapter 27, n. 1, 166.
18. Joseph Davis, ed., Stories of Change: Narrative and Social Movements (New York: State University of New York Press, 2002).
19. Dennis Gioia and Peter P. Poole, “Scripts in Organizational Behavior,” Academy of Management Review 9, no. 3 (1984): 449–459; Ian Donald and David Canter, “Intentionality and Fatality During the King’s Cross Underground Fire,” European Journal of Social Psychology 22 (1992): 203–218.
20. R. P. Abelson, “Psychological Status of the Script Concept,” American Psychologist 36 (1981): 715–729.
21. Avner Offer, “Going to War in 1914: A Matter of Honor?” Politics and Society 23, no. 2 (1995): 213–241. Richard Herrmann and Michael Fischerkeller also introduce the idea of “strategic scripts” in their “Beyond the Enemy Image and Spiral Model: Cognitive-Strategic Research After the Cold War,” International Organization 49, no. 3 (Summer 1995): 415–450. Their use is, however, different with scripts considered as “hypothetical structures that offer a means to organize the totality of foreign policy behavior.” Another approach is that offered by James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992). Scott describes how subordinate groups critique the “public transcript” promoted by the dominant group by surreptitiously developing a critique in the form of “hidden transcripts.” He thus takes familiar arguments about paradigms, formulas, myths, and false consciousness and challenges them by suggesting that subordinate groups are not so easily duped.
22. Jerome Bruner, “The Narrative Construction of Reality,” Critical Inquiry, 1991, 4–5, 34.
23. Christopher Fenton and Ann Langley, “Strategy as Practice and the Narrative Turn,” Organization Studies 32, no. 9 (2011): 1171–1196; G. Shaw, R. Brown, and P. Bromiley, “Strategic Stories: How 3M Is Rewriting Business Planning,” Harvard Business Review (May–June 1998), 41–50.
24. Valérie-Inès de la Ville and Elèonore Mounand, “A Narrative Approach to Strategy as Practice: Strategy-making from Texts and Narratives,” in Damon Golskorkhi, et al. eds., Cambridge Handbook of Strategy as Practice (see chap. 35, n. 29), 13.
25. David Barry and Michael Elmes, “Strategy Retold: Toward a Narrative View of Strategic Discourse,” The Academy of Management Review 22, no. 2 (April 1997): 437, 430, 432–433.
26. Robert McKee, Story, Substance, Structure, Style, and the Principles of Screenwriting (London: Methuen, 1997).
27. Aristotle, Poetics, http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/poetics.html.
28. Laton McCartney, The Teapot Dome Scandal: How Big Oil Bought the Harding White House and Tried to Steal the Country (New York: Random House, 2008).
29. Although the first senator to come out for Roosevelt and the New Deal, by 1939 he was known as a vigorous isolationist and for accusations that Jews in Hollywood were using the influence of the movies to stir up prowar fervor. He denied Japan’s hostile intent in the weeks before Pearl Harbor. This background led him to have a later literary incarnation, as Charles Lindbergh’s vice president in Philip Roth’s The Plot Against America (New York: Random House, 2004).
30. Michael Kazin, American Dreamers (see chap. 25, n. 51), 187; Charles Lindblom and John A. Hall, “Frank Capra Meets John Doe: Anti-politics in American National Identity,” in Mette Hjort and Scott Mackenzie, eds., Cinema and Nation (New York: Routledge, 2000). See also Joseph McBride, Frank Capra (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2011).
31. This self-regulating body for upholding proper moral standards in film was largely about sexual conduct, but Breen also imposed political censorship, for example preventing anti-Nazi films being made, at least until 1938.
32. Richard Maltby, Hollywood Cinema (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003), 278–279.
33. Eric Smoodin, “‘Compulsory’ Viewing for Every Citizen: Mr. Smith and the Rhetoric of Reception,” Cinema Journal 35, no. 2 (Winter 1996): 3–23.
34. Frances Fitzgerald, Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars and the End of the Cold War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 27–37.
35. The original script can be found at http://www.dailyscript.com/scripts/MrSmithGoesToWashington.txt.
36. Michael P. Rogin and Kathleen Moran, “Mr. Capra Goes to Washington,” Representations, no. 84 (Autumn 2003): 213–248.
37. Christopher Booker, The Seven Basic Plots: Why We Tell Stories (New York: Continuum, 2004).
INDEX
Abelson, Robert, 598–599, 619
Abernathy, Ralph, 363
Abernathy, William, 528
Adams, Scott, 552–553
Addams, Jane
compared to Follet, 466–467
on conflict, 313–314
Du Bois and, 351
Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR) and, 354
First World War and, 316
Hull House and, 310–313, 315
Progressivism and, 313
Pullman strike and, 313–314
Tolstoy and, 310–311
on urban life, 311, 313
Aeneid, The (Virgil), 22, 24–25, 42
Afghanistan, 222, 235
Agincourt, Battle of, 48–49
Agnew, Spiro, 441
Ailes, Roger, 439, 450
air power, theories of, 125–128, 131, 138, 158, 208
al-Qaeda, 222–225, 234–235
Albany (Georgia, US), 362–363
Alexander I (Tsar of Russia), 78–80, 101, 143
Alexander II (Tsar of Russia), 266, 277
Alexander the Great, 505–506
Algeria, 188–189
Ali, Mohammed, 393
Alinsky, Saul
biography of, 378
Catholic Church and, 380
Chávez and, 387
community organizing and, 379–385, 387–389
criminology and, 379, 680n32
Democratic presidential candidates
and, 455
Industrial Areas Foundation and, 381
King Jr. and, 388–389
labor unions and, 380–381
Lewis and, 381
liberals and, 381–382, 384
New Left and, 388, 408–409
protest tactics and, 383–384
radicals and, 381–384
rules for radicals and, 382–383, 408
Allenby, Edmund, 182
America Can be Saved (Falwell), 444
American Civil War, 109–112, 262
American Federation of Labor, 381, 386
American War of Independence, 178, 232
anarchism
Bakunin and, 251, 269–273, 276, 287–288, 392
Conrad’s depiction of, 278
Luxemburg and, 288
political strikes and, 287–288
reluctance to take power and, 280
Spain and, 279
syndicalism and, 279
terrorism and, 276–279
Tolstoy on, 310
Andrews, Kenneth, 499–500, 521
Ansoff, Igor, 498, 500–504, 519, 521, 539
ants, 6
Arab rebellion (1916), 181–182
Arab Spring (2011), 230–231, 412
Arab-Israeli War (1973), 199
Archidamus, 33
Arendt, Hannah, 392, 403, 614
Aristotle, 623
Arminius, Jacobus, 55–56
armored warfare, theories of, 129–132
Arms and Influence (Schelling), 166–167
Armstrong, Helen, 558
Aron, Raymond, xv
Arquilla, John, 229–230, 431
Arrow, Kenneth, 577
Art of Manipulation, The (Riker), 588
Art of War (Jomini), 84–85
Art of War, The (Machiavelli), 51
Art of War, The (Sun Tzu), 44–45, 509–510. See also Sun Tzu, strategic theories of
Association of Licensed Automobile Manufacturers (ALAM), 479
asymmetric wars, 220–225, 227
Atē, 29
Athens, 30–38, 46–47, 72
Athos, Tony, 545
Atlanta Compromise, 350
atomic weapons. See nuclear weapons
Attila the Hun, 506
attrition warfare
Boyd on, 199
compared to maneuver warfare, 201, 206, 209, 242
Delbrück on, 108–109, 180, 204, 289, 332
Liddell Hart and, 138
Luttwack on, 203
negotiations and, 243
Atwater, Lee
on Baby Boomers, 447–448
Machiavellian approach of, 445
media strategies of, 446–448
Southern strategies of, 447, 452
Sun Tzu and, 445–446
Willie Horton political ads and, 448
Augustine of Hippo, 55
Austerlitz, Battle of, 78, 100
Austria, 78–80, 93, 105, 254–255
Axelrod, David, 453
Axelrod, Robert, 584–586
Ayers, Bill, 455
Bach, Lee, 517
Bachrach, Peter, 373
Baker, Ella, 361
Bakunin, Mikhail
anarchism and, 251, 269–273, 276, 287–288, 392
biography of, 268–269
First International and, 270–271
general strikes and, 287–288
Herzen and, 268–269
Marx and, 268, 270–272, 276, 474
Nechayev and, 276
on the Paris Commune, 271–272
on philosophy of history, 273–274
propaganda of the deed and, 275–276
on revolutionaries, 273–276
Baldwin, Stanley, 126
Baratz, Morton, 373
Barnard, Chester, 471–473, 543, 563, 566
Barnouw, Jeffrey, 28
Barry, David, 622–623
Barthes, Roland, 428
Bassford, Christopher, 86
Batista, Fulgencio, 399
Battle of Britain (1940), 140
Battle of France (1940), 199, 210, 617
Battle of the Atlantic, 140
Baxter, Leone, 437–438
Beaufre, André, 193–194
Bebel, August, 284
Becker, Gary, 576
Beinhocker, Eric, 540
Belgium, 113–114, 123, 139
Bell, Daniel, 405
Bell, The (Herzen), 266
Benn, William Wedgewood, 348–349
Bergson, Henri, 328
Berle, Adolf, 489–490, 492, 526
Berlin (Germany), 172–174
Berlin, Isaiah, 98, 101, 265, 307, 613–614
Bernard, Jessie, 153
Bernays, Edward, 340–343, 414, 432
Bernstein, Eduard, 284–285
Berra, Yogi, 575
Bethlehem Steel, 463
Betts, Richard, 139–140
Bible, The
Aaron in, 13–15
Adam and Eve in, 11–12, 56–57
Book of Revelation in, 57
David and Goliath in, 10, 19–21, 617
Exodus story in, 10, 12–17, 21, 57
Garden of Eden account in, 11–12
Gibeonites in, 18
Gideon in, 18–19
God’s role in human conflicts in, 10–21, 57
Israelites in, 12–20
Jacob in, 11, 13
Job in, 56
Joshua in, 17–18
Moses in, 13–17, 21
Pharaoh in, 13–17, 21
Philistines in, 19–21
Rahab in, 17
Samuel in, 20
Satan in, 56–57
Saul in, 19–20
Ten Plagues account in, 13–17
biē (strength), 23, 25, 42
bipolar strategy, 204
Birmingham (Alabama, US), 362–364
Bismarck, Otto von, 103, 106
Black Panthers, 394–395, 403–405
Black Power movement, 393–394
Blake, William, 57
Blanqui, Louis-Auguste, 251, 263, 271
blitzkrieg strategy, 139, 199–200, 210, 225, 617
Blumenthal, Sidney, 449
Bolsheviks, 180, 289, 292, 294, 296, 298, 466. See also Lenin, Vladimir Ilych
Bonaparte, Louis-Napoleon, 258, 271
Bonaparte, Napoleon
French Revolution and, 249
influences on, 45, 76
Jomini on, 83–84
legacy of, 505–506
military strategies of, 70, 75–78, 93, 95, 109–111, 237, 613
personality cult of, 97
political objectives of, 93
Russia campaign of, 78–83, 90, 209
Spain campaign of, 90
Tolstoy’s depiction of, 99–100, 617
Bond, Brian, 95, 138
Book of Five Rings, The (Musashi), 510
Borodino, Battle of, 79–83, 93, 99
Boston Consulting Group (BCG), 498, 507, 511, 519–520, 544, 707n41
bounded rationality, 544, 592
Boyd, John
attrition warfare and, 199
on Battle of France (1940), 199, 617
on maneuver warfare, 199, 216
OODA loop (observation, orientation, decision, action) and, 196–199, 217, 451, 511–512
strategic theories of, 196–203, 212–213, 216, 225–226, 548
Brams, Steven, 11
Brandeis, Louis, 464–465
Brandenburger, Adam, 523, 710n6
Breen, Joseph, 625
Brodie, Bernard, 146–147, 150, 156, 160–161, 168, 192, 194
Bronowski, Jacob, 151
Brown v. Board of Education, 357
Brown, H. Rap, 394
Brown, James, 543
Brown, Pat, 442
Bruner, Jerome, 621
Buchman, Sidney, 625
Bull, Hedley, 149–150, 167
Bundy, McGeorge, 173, 176–177
Bungay, Stephen, 562, 570
bureaucracy, Weber on, 302–303, 322, 368, 370, 459, 551, 609
Bureaucratization of the World (Rizzi), 334
Burgess, Edwin, 378–380
Burnham, James, 334–335, 491–492, 674n26
Bush, George H.W., 446, 448–449, 451–452
Bush, George W., 222, 224, 433
business management
agency theory and, 525–528
competition and, 518–524, 536–539, 608
criticism of quantitative emphasis in, 528–530
definitions of, 460–461
deliberate versus emergent strategies, 554–555
deregulation’s impact on, 548–549
as domination, 557–560
education regarding, 461–462, 516–518
efficient market theory and, 526–527
emphasis on narrative in, 563–567
finance strategies and, 530
Follet on, 466–468
Ford Foundation and, 516–517
Galbraith on, 492
“gurus” and, 561
halo effect and, 569–570
human relations school of, 468–473, 483, 543
information and communications technology and, 543
key performance indicators (KPIs) and, 562
learning organizations and, 556–557
military strategy and, 505–512, 537–538, 540
planning and, 493, 500, 502–505, 518, 550, 559, 570
postmodernism and, 557–558
proliferation of strategies in, 561–563
psychological aspects of, 470, 472
“scientific management” and, 464–465
stockholders and, 492, 530
Taylorism and, 462–466, 468
theories of power and, 557–559
business process reengineering (BPR), 532–536, 561
Byrne, Richard, 5
Caddell, Pat, 449
Calvin, William, 429
Calvinism, 55–56
Calwell, C. E., 181
Campaigns Inc., 437–438
Camus, Albert, 371, 374, 397